The role of low-energy electrons in focused electron beam induced deposition: four case studies of representative precursors

• Rachel M. Thorman,
• Ragesh Kumar T. P.,
• D. Howard Fairbrother and
• Oddur Ingólfsson

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2015, 6, 1904–1926, doi:10.3762/bjnano.6.194

• represents the distributions of SE energies while the latter means the total SE yield as function of PE energy. The principal variable determining the influence of the PE energy on the SE yield at the surface is their penetration depth. This, in turn, depends mainly on the Z-value of the substrate. In

Lower nanometer-scale size limit for the deformation of a metallic glass by shear transformations revealed by quantitative AFM indentation

• Arnaud Caron and
• Roland Bennewitz

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2015, 6, 1721–1732, doi:10.3762/bjnano.6.176

• suitable alternative to determine the hardness of a material, even when the remaining indent is too small to be accurately imaged. The projected area is then determined from the penetration depth with the help of an indenter-area function [2]. Meanwhile the Berkovich indenter with a half-opening angle α

• compliant sample surface, an extension of the z-scanner also leads to a penetration of the AFM tip into the sample surface by the penetration depth δ = Z − D. While the cantilever deflection D is calibrated independently, the height value Z is subject to drift or creep effects of the piezoelectric scanner

• according to ΔZdrift = Δδ + ΔD = vdrift × t, where Δδ and ΔD are the differences in penetration depth and deflection with regard to the fastest measurement, vdrift is the drift velocity and t is the time. Subsequently, the penetration depth was re-evaluated according to δ = Z + ΔZdrift − D under the

Scanning reflection ion microscopy in a helium ion microscope

• Yuri V. Petrov and
• Oleg F. Vyvenko

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2015, 6, 1125–1137, doi:10.3762/bjnano.6.114

• asterisk is used to emphasize that the reflection coefficient near the step edge differs from the reflection coefficient of the bulk sample surface when the distance to the step edge is comparable with the ion penetration depth. Near the step edge some part of the incident beam penetrates through it with

Fabrication of high-resolution nanostructures of complex geometry by the single-spot nanolithography method

• Alexander Samardak,
• Margarita Anisimova,
• Aleksei Samardak and
• Alexey Ognev

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2015, 6, 976–986, doi:10.3762/bjnano.6.101

• determines the energy of the electron beam, and hence the penetration depth into the resist and substrate. The exposure dose refers to the number of inserted electrons in the primary electron beam. In the beginning, it was empirically found that at single spot doses less than 0.2 pC, the PMMA resist behaves

• that the electron backscattering coefficient for bulk Au is about three times larger than for bulk Si at an acceleration voltage of 10 kV [18]. The electron beam energy plays a very important role in the fabrication process because of its strong effect on the electron penetration depth and the number

• of inelastic collisions occurring in the resist. On the one hand, with an increase of the electron energy, the penetration depth increases, giving a narrow energy density distribution of primary electrons in the resist. On the other hand, at higher voltages, the number of polymer chain scissions per

In situ observation of biotite (001) surface dissolution at pH 1 and 9.5 by advanced optical microscopy

• Chiara Cappelli,
• Daniel Lamarca-Irisarri,
• Jordi Camas,
• F. Javier Huertas and
• Alexander E. S. Van Driessche

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2015, 6, 665–673, doi:10.3762/bjnano.6.67

• of the streak structures, the reacted biotite surface was analysed by confocal Raman spectroscopy. The spectra of the unreacted (001) basal surface and that of the reacted surface with the streaks only showed biotite peaks (Figure 5). However, it should be noted that, owing to the penetration depth

Overview of nanoscale NEXAFS performed with soft X-ray microscopes

• Peter Guttmann and
• Carla Bittencourt

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2015, 6, 595–604, doi:10.3762/bjnano.6.61

• nanostructures needs spatial resolution in the nanoscale range together with X-ray spectroscopy methods. X-ray microscopy reaches a higher Rayleigh resolution than optical microscopy as the resolution is decreasing linear with the wavelength. Additionally, the larger penetration depth and smaller radiation

• normally detect the photons which are transmitted through the sample. The penetration depth of X-rays and therefore the usable sample thickness correlates with the X-ray photon energy used for the analysis and is much larger than for electrons (Figure 2) [30]. In the soft X-ray regime penetration depths in

• energy. The penetration depth of X-rays is larger than for electrons. In the so called “water window”, i.e., between the carbon and oxygen absorption edges at 284 and 543 eV protein and water have quite different absorption values which leads to a natural absorption contrast. Reprinted with permission

Overview about the localization of nanoparticles in tissue and cellular context by different imaging techniques

• Anja Ostrowski,
• Daniel Nordmeyer,
• Alexander Boreham,
• Cornelia Holzhausen,
• Lars Mundhenk,
• Christina Graf,
• Martina C. Meinke,
• Annika Vogt,
• Sabrina Hadam,
• Jürgen Lademann,
• Eckart Rühl,
• Ulrike Alexiev and
• Achim D. Gruber

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2015, 6, 263–280, doi:10.3762/bjnano.6.25

• in the soft regime and even tomographic analyses of biological samples of up to 10 µm thickness are possible [143]. Besides high contrast and penetration depth, synchrotron radiation in the soft X-ray regime may be tuned for spectromicroscopy and chemical identification of the X-ray absorbing

Oxygen-plasma-modified biomimetic nanofibrous scaffolds for enhanced compatibility of cardiovascular implants

• Anna Maria Pappa,
• Varvara Karagkiozaki,
• Silke Krol,
• Spyros Kassavetis,
• Dimitris Konstantinou,
• Charalampos Pitsalidis,
• Lazaros Tzounis,
• Nikos Pliatsikas and
• Stergios Logothetidis

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2015, 6, 254–262, doi:10.3762/bjnano.6.24

• locations of the samples to 300 nm maximum penetration depth. The nanoindentation load–displacement curves were analyzed by using the Oliver–Pharr model to calculate the elastic modulus of the samples versus the indenter penetration (contact) depth [31]. Cell studies MTT assay: MTT assay (Sigma-Aldrich

The distribution and degradation of radiolabeled superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles and quantum dots in mice

• Denise Bargheer,
• Artur Giemsa,
• Barbara Freund,
• Markus Heine,
• Christian Waurisch,
• Gordon M. Stachowski,
• Stephen G. Hickey,
• Alexander Eychmüller,
• Jörg Heeren and
• Peter Nielsen

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2015, 6, 111–123, doi:10.3762/bjnano.6.11

• the lack of appropriate techniques to reliably quantify the dynamic variation of Qdots in living animals. Fluorescent imaging has low spatial resolution and limited penetration depth, and quantification based only on such methods is limited. Functionalized SPIOs are also interesting candidates for

Low-cost plasmonic solar cells prepared by chemical spray pyrolysis

• Erki Kärber,
• Atanas Katerski,
• Ilona Oja Acik,
• Valdek Mikli,
• Arvo Mere,
• Ilmo Sildos and
• Malle Krunks

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2014, 5, 2398–2402, doi:10.3762/bjnano.5.249

• . The penetration depth of the optical radiation (in the region of 400–900 nm) remains roughly between 0.1 and 1 μm within the CuInS2 absorber [16]. Since the thickness of the CuInS2 is approximately 350 nm, a significant gain of absorption was not expected for wavelength regions with a low penetration

• depth. However, longer wavelengths penetrate deeper into the absorber (or are transmitted) and hence can fully utilize the presence the Au-NPs on the rear side of the absorber. In addition, Au is also an excellent reflector for wavelengths greater than 600 nm. Furthermore, an increase in the optical

Interaction of dermatologically relevant nanoparticles with skin cells and skin

• Annika Vogt,
• Fiorenza Rancan,
• Sebastian Ahlberg,
• Berouz Nazemi,
• Chun Sik Choe,
• Maxim E. Darvin,
• Sabrina Hadam,
• Ulrike Blume-Peytavi,
• Kateryna Loza,
• Jörg Diendorf,
• Matthias Epple,
• Christina Graf,
• Eckart Rühl,
• Martina C. Meinke and
• Jürgen Lademann

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2014, 5, 2363–2373, doi:10.3762/bjnano.5.245

• generate valid data, however, it is not sufficient to rely on the penetration depth alone [9]. A deeper understanding can only be obtained by combining different approaches. Notably, X-ray microscopy could become a valuable tool for imaging with high spatial resolution combined with analysis of

• penetration of silver nanoparticles (AgNP, mean size 70 nm) in porcine ear skin. By tracking the Raman signal of AgNP, the mean penetration depth in intact skin was found to be 4.4 ± 1.5 µm, which is in accordance with other investigations on silica [3], zink oxide [19], or AgNP in this size range or smaller

• [20]. A pre-treatment with tape stripping of 20 adhesive tapes, which according to our own unpublished data corresponds to a removal of approximately 70–80% of the stratum corneum, only slightly increased the penetration depth to 5.1 ± 2.5 µm. Additionally, the penetration profile of AgNP was analyzed

Inorganic Janus particles for biomedical applications

• Isabel Schick,
• Steffen Lorenz,
• Dominik Gehrig,
• Stefan Tenzer,
• Wiebke Storck,
• Karl Fischer,
• Dennis Strand,
• Frédéric Laquai and
• Wolfgang Tremel

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2014, 5, 2346–2362, doi:10.3762/bjnano.5.244

• based on the little two photon-cross-section of most biomolecules leading to less auto-fluorescence, enhanced penetration depth within biological samples by tuning the excitation light to the biological window, near IR range 700–1000 nm. Furthermore, the effect of photobleaching can be reduced by

PVP-coated, negatively charged silver nanoparticles: A multi-center study of their physicochemical characteristics, cell culture and in vivo experiments

• Sebastian Ahlberg,
• Alexandra Antonopulos,
• Jörg Diendorf,
• Ralf Dringen,
• Matthias Epple,
• Rebekka Flöck,
• Wolfgang Goedecke,
• Christina Graf,
• Nadine Haberl,
• Jens Helmlinger,
• Fabian Herzog,
• Frederike Heuer,
• Stephanie Hirn,
• Christian Johannes,
• Stefanie Kittler,
• Manfred Köller,
• Katrin Korn,
• Wolfgang G. Kreyling,
• Fritz Krombach,
• Jürgen Lademann,
• Kateryna Loza,
• Eva M. Luther,
• Marcelina Malissek,
• Martina C. Meinke,
• Daniel Nordmeyer,
• Anne Pailliart,
• Jörg Raabe,
• Fiorenza Rancan,
• Barbara Rothen-Rutishauser,
• Eckart Rühl,
• Carsten Schleh,
• Andreas Seibel,
• Christina Sengstock,
• Lennart Treuel,
• Annika Vogt,
• Katrin Weber and
• Reinhard Zellner

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2014, 5, 1944–1965, doi:10.3762/bjnano.5.205

A reproducible number-based sizing method for pigment-grade titanium dioxide

• Ralf Theissmann,
• Manfred Kluwig and
• Thomas Koch

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2014, 5, 1815–1822, doi:10.3762/bjnano.5.192

• of ECD and minimum Feret diameter of the pigment sections. Stereologic correction has not been performed, and is not feasible for this application [15][20]. Errors introduced by stereologic effects may gain importance if the size of the measured objects is large compared to the penetration depth of

• ensures comparability, not only within the set of images of one sample, but also between different samples or even between samples measured on different instruments with varying detector settings or noise levels. The comparability is sufficient, as long as the penetration depth of the electrons, which is

Probing viscoelastic surfaces with bimodal tapping-mode atomic force microscopy: Underlying physics and observables for a standard linear solid model

• Santiago D. Solares

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2014, 5, 1649–1663, doi:10.3762/bjnano.5.176

• oscillation loop (since the tip will travel up and down according to the second frequency oscillation while still remaining under the sample for a contact time dictated by the first oscillation frequency). However, as A2 increases and exceeds the penetration depth, the surface will only interact with single

Dry friction of microstructured polymer surfaces inspired by snake skin

• Martina J. Baum,
• Lars Heepe,
• Elena Fadeeva and
• Stanislav N. Gorb

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2014, 5, 1091–1103, doi:10.3762/bjnano.5.122

• depth of the glass ball into the microstructures under a certain applied normal force is a combination of the material deformation and geometric conditions. Hence, this calculated penetration depth describes the minimal penetration depth between the tribo-pair. It is necessary to notice that the spacial

Scale effects of nanomechanical properties and deformation behavior of Au nanoparticle and thin film using depth sensing nanoindentation

• Dave Maharaj and
• Bharat Bhushan

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2014, 5, 822–836, doi:10.3762/bjnano.5.94

• than bulk. Both nanoparticles and film showed increasing hardness for decreasing penetration depth. For the film, creep and strain rate effects were observed. In comparison of nanoindentation and compression tests, more pop-ins during loading were observed during the nanoindentation of nanoparticles

• compression with a flat punch (global deformation). Data from the nanoindentation studies were compared with bulk to study scale effects on hardness. The effects of the penetration depth on hardness were investigated for nanoparticles and thin films. For the films, creep and strain rate tests were also

Modeling and optimization of atomic layer deposition processes on vertically aligned carbon nanotubes

• Nuri Yazdani,
• Vipin Chawla,
• Eve Edwards,
• Vanessa Wood,
• Hyung Gyu Park and
• Ivo Utke

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2014, 5, 234–244, doi:10.3762/bjnano.5.25

• -sized pores has demonstrated that the factor limiting the penetration depth of the oxide is the depth, to which the precursor molecules can diffuse in the pores and adsorb on the pore surface during the precursor exposure/adsorption step of the ALD process. The penetration depth of the oxide into the

• the CNTs with adsorbed precursors, as illustrated in Figure 1. Understanding how the penetration depth of the precursor varies with the ALD process parameters and radii of the CNTs could thus enable deposition recipes to be optimized to obtain a ceramic with uniform thickness to a desired penetration

• function of depth results from the decrease in the penetration depth from cycle to cycle. The model predicts that if the precursor exposure times are scaled as a function of cycle number, uniform depositions can be achieved. Finally, we experimentally confirm our model predictions. Results and Discussion

Friction behavior of a microstructured polymer surface inspired by snake skin

• Martina J. Baum,
• Lars Heepe and
• Stanislav N. Gorb

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2014, 5, 83–97, doi:10.3762/bjnano.5.8

• microstructures, based on geometry only are listed in Table 4. It is necessary to notice that the spatial resolution of the microtribometer for cantilever deflection in normal direction is too low to detect the deflection on microstructures with pitch dimensions of 5 µm and 25 µm (penetration depth: 0.002 µm and

Template based precursor route for the synthesis of CuInSe₂ nanorod arrays for potential solar cell applications

• Mikhail Pashchanka,
• Jonas Bang,
• Niklas S. A. Gora,
• Ildiko Balog,
• Rudolf C. Hoffmann and
• Jörg J. Schneider

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2013, 4, 868–874, doi:10.3762/bjnano.4.98

• indium selenide is characterised by a large absorption coefficient, and incident light can reach penetration depths only up to 100–200 nm, which results in a low signal intensity [22][23]. However, the penetration depth corresponds well with the nanorod diameter, and reliable information about the

Evolution of microstructure and related optical properties of ZnO grown by atomic layer deposition

• Adib Abou Chaaya,
• Roman Viter,
• Mikhael Bechelany,
• Zanda Alute,
• Donats Erts,
• Anastasiya Zalesskaya,
• Kristaps Kovalevskis,
• Vincent Rouessac,
• Valentyn Smyntyna and
• Philippe Miele

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2013, 4, 690–698, doi:10.3762/bjnano.4.78

• while matching the thickness with an advancement of the crystalline structures. This finding correlates well with XRD data. Photoluminescence and absorption spectra. The penetration depth of the laser spot in the ALD deposited thin films estimated from transmittance data according to the Beer–Lambert

Functionalization of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes

• Eloise Van Hooijdonk,
• Carla Bittencourt,
• Rony Snyders and
• Jean-François Colomer

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2013, 4, 129–152, doi:10.3762/bjnano.4.14

• polymer-free region (Figure 19). Mechanical insertion of a VA-CNT forest in a spin-cast PM allows the best control of the penetration depth [145]. A post-treatment consisting of the attachment of nanoparticles in the polymer-free region can take place (as discussed in the previous section), the

Growth behaviour and mechanical properties of PLL/HA multilayer films studied by AFM

• Cagri Üzüm,
• Johannes Hellwig,
• Narayanan Madaboosi,
• Dmitry Volodkin and
• Regine von Klitzing

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2012, 3, 778–788, doi:10.3762/bjnano.3.87

• , introduced in the experimental section. The total penetration depth in a force measurement has already been used to determine the thickness of nanometre-scale coatings, e.g., lipid bilayers [29], but, to our knowledge, the total thickness of micron-scale polymeric films has not yet been extracted in this way

The morphology of silver nanoparticles prepared by enzyme-induced reduction

• Henrik Schneidewind,
• Thomas Schüler,
• Katharina K. Strelau,
• Karina Weber,
• Dana Cialla,
• Marco Diegel,
• Roland Mattheis,
• Andreas Berger,
• Robert Möller and
• Jürgen Popp

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2012, 3, 404–414, doi:10.3762/bjnano.3.47

• derived from RBS data are averaged over areas that are significantly larger, by orders of magnitude, than the silver nanoparticles, in order to avoid errors due to the analysis of small, statistically deviating regions. Secondly, the penetration depth of the 1.4 MeV 4He+ ions reaches some micrometers due

Ultraviolet photodetection of flexible ZnO nanowire sheets in polydimethylsiloxane polymer

• Jinzhang Liu,
• Nunzio Motta and
• Soonil Lee

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2012, 3, 353–359, doi:10.3762/bjnano.3.41

• polymer with higher oxygen permeability would have a faster UV photoresponse. The UV penetration depth in ZnO is less than 100 nm, whereas the thickness of the nanowire film is several micrometers, indicating that the contribution to the photoconduction of a nanowire sheet comes mostly from the top layers