Exploring the potential of polymers: advancements in oral nanocarrier technology

• Rousilândia de Araujo Silva,
• Igor Eduardo Silva Arruda,
• Luise Lopes Chaves,
• Mônica Felts de La Roca Soares and
• Jose Lamartine Soares Sobrinho

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1751–1793, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.122

• polymers are classified based on their chemical composition and include polyesters, polyamides, polyethylene glycol derivatives, and responsive polymers, among others. The most frequently used polymers as oral nanocarriers include poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA), polycaprolactone (PCL), and

• specific polymer classes, depending on their physicochemical properties and solubility behavior. Nanoprecipitation is frequently employed for synthetic polymers such as PLGA and PCL, which are soluble in organic solvents and undergo controlled precipitation in aqueous media, enabling efficient

Prospects of nanotechnology and natural products for cancer and immunotherapy

• Jan Filipe Andrade Santos,
• Marcela Bernardes Brasileiro,
• Pamela Danielle Cavalcante Barreto,
• Ligiane Aranha Rocha and
• José Adão Carvalho Nascimento Júnior

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1644–1667, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.116

• chemical, enzymatic, and combined extraction methods [116][117]. CN115887415 (2023) describes a methoxypoly(ethyleneglycol)-poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (mPEG-PLGA) nanocarrier containing dehydrocurvularin; the latter is the API of the formulation and exhibits sustained release. Dehydrocurvularin is a

• natural benzenediol produced by many fungi as a secondary metabolite. Its therapeutic activity is focused on antitumor capacity through its synergistic activity with drugs, increasing efficacy and tumor targeting capacity [127][137]. The formulation combines mPEG-PLGA, acetonitrile, and Tween-80. The

• , nuts, and herbs, which can help cancer treatment by targeting mitochondrial metabolism and inducing apoptosis through the inhibition of cyclin-dependent kinase 6 [189][190][191]. Following the development of the patent, the inventors also incorporated biocompatible polymers, such as PLGA and

Transient electronics for sustainability: Emerging technologies and future directions

• Jae-Young Bae,
• Myung-Kyun Choi and
• Seung-Kyun Kang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1545–1556, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.109

• mechanical flexibility of bioresorbable polymers have emerged as a representative form of transient electronics [14]. A typical example includes devices that integrate inorganic silicon nanomembranes or metal oxide semiconductors on bioresorbable polymer substrates such as poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA

• extensively explored (Figure 2f) [14][85][86][87]. Well-known bioresorbable polymers such as silk, PLGA, and collagen have been utilized as encapsulation materials [14]. In addition, naturally derived wax-based compounds have attracted attention due to their enhanced hydrophobicity [85]. To further improve

Nanomaterials for biomedical applications

• Iqra Zainab,
• Zohra Naseem,
• Syeda Rubab Batool,
• Filippo Pierini,
• Seda Kizilel and
• Muhammad Anwaar Nazeer

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1499–1503, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.105

• [9]. Along with liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles have turned out to be an equally dynamic platform. Typically, these particles are composed of biodegradable materials, such as poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) or chitosan. One of the main advantages of polymers is that they can be designed to

Enhancing the therapeutical potential of metalloantibiotics using nano-based delivery systems

• Alejandro Llamedo,
• Marina Cano,
• Raquel G. Soengas and
• Francisco J. García-Alonso

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1350–1366, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.98

• S. aureus, E. faecium, E. faecalis, and M. tuberculosis. In order to achieve a sustained release of auranofin to the infection site and improve the treatment efficacy, Díez-Martínez et al. investigated the encapsulation of this Au(I) complex in poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles and

• the antibacterial efficacy of the resulting formulation against the Gram-positive pathogens S. pneumoniae and S. pyogenes [111]. Auranofin-PLGA NPs exhibited a strong bactericidal effect, effectively sterilizing multiresistant pneumococcal strains at a Au(I) concentration of just 0.25 μM. This potent

• encapsulation of the antimicrobial morin-Cu(II) complex 13 (Figure 4) in human serum albumin (HSA) or PLGA NPs [118]. The resulting nanoencapsulated systems displayed spherical morphology and high encapsulation efficiency, with average particles sizes of 214 ± 6 nm for Mor-Cu-HSA-NPs and 185 ± 7.5 nm for Mor-Cu

Better together: biomimetic nanomedicines for high performance tumor therapy

• Imran Shair Mohammad,
• Gizem Kursunluoglu,
• Anup Kumar Patel,
• Hafiz Muhammad Ishaq,
• Cansu Umran Tunc,
• Dilek Kanarya,
• Mubashar Rehman,
• Omer Aydin and
• Yin Lifang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1246–1276, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.92

• successfully employed to cross biological barriers to target cancer cells. The neutrophil membranes enhanced circulation life, efficiently targeted tumors, and inhibited growth by photodynamic therapy. Neutrophil membrane-coated celastrol-loaded PEG-PLGA nanoparticles were prepared to treat pancreatic cancer

• , where drug delivery is limited by the blood–pancreas barrier. The nanoparticles successfully crossed the barrier, accumulated selectively in pancreatic cancer cells, inhibited tumor growth and its metastasis to the liver [36]. Similarly, neutrophil membrane-coated PLGA nanoparticles were used for the

• chemotherapeutic efficacy. In this respect, Wang et al. synthesized bioengineered cancer cell membrane-coated, gemcitabine-loaded PLGA dual targeting NPs (PG@KMCM) for pancreatic cancer treatment. The PG@KMCM efficiently delivered gemcitabine to pancreatic cancer cells and TAMs simultaneously and potentiated the

Hydrogels and nanogels: effectiveness in dermal applications

• Jéssica da Cruz Ludwig,
• Diana Fortkamp Grigoletto,
• Daniele Fernanda Renzi,
• Wolf-Rainer Abraham,
• Daniel de Paula and
• Najeh Maissar Khalil

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1216–1233, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.90

• safety [209]. Nanogels loaded with 5-FU [196][209] and capecitabine [37], when topically applied, can be an interesting strategy to improve chemotherapeutic efficiency in the treatment of skin cancer [168]. Double-walled biodegradable nanogels composed of PLGA–chitosan coated with eucalyptus oil

• efficiently encapsulated 5-FU [196]. The 5-FU was encapsulated in the PLGA core using the solvent evaporation technique. Then, the nanoparticle was coated with cationic chitosan, aiming to promote ionic interactions with the anionic cell membrane of the tumor. Finally, eucalyptus oil (1%) was added to the

• surface of the nanoparticle to favor the penetration of the nanogels into the SC). Both in vitro and ex vivo results showed higher cutaneous penetration of 5-FU performed by double-walled PLGA–chitosan nanogels coated with eucalyptus oil, demonstrating the favorable potential of nanogels in skin cancer

Polyurethane/silk fibroin-based electrospun membranes for wound healing and skin substitute applications

• Iqra Zainab,
• Zohra Naseem,
• Syeda Rubab Batool,
• Muhammad Waqas,
• Ahsan Nazir and
• Muhammad Anwaar Nazeer

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 591–612, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.46

• infected wounds. This composite contains short filaments of electrospun poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) fibers embedded with gold nanorods (AuNRs) and the anti-inflammatory drug dexamethasone. The filaments are incorporated in a gelatin methacrylate/sodium alginate hydrogel scaffold. The AuNRs render

• ultrasound to incorporate BP nanosheets for improved stability and processability. As a result, silk fibroin-doped black phosphorus nanosheets (BP@SF) were produced, which possess good water dispersity and long-term stability. BP@SF nanosheets were consolidated into fibrous membranes based on SF and PLGA by

• electrospinning. The SF/PLGA/BP@SF membranes had smooth and uniform fibers, high tensile strength, and good photothermal properties. Moreover, when exposed to NIR light, the temperature of the membranes raised; the photothermal performance was tunable depending on the amount of BP@SF incorporated and the NIR

Nanomaterials in targeting amyloid-β oligomers: current advances and future directions for Alzheimer's disease diagnosis and therapy

• Shiwani Randhawa,
• Trilok Chand Saini,
• Manik Bathla,
• Rahul Bhardwaj,
• Rubina Dhiman and
• Amitabha Acharya

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 561–580, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.44

• (PLGA) and grafted with surface 83-14 monoclonal antibody (MAb). These NPs were designed to deliver rosmarinic acid (RA) and curcumin (CUR) across the BBB and improve the viability of SK-N-MC cells damaged by amyloid deposits. The researchers found that increasing the concentration of 83-14 MAb on the

Synthetic-polymer-assisted antisense oligonucleotide delivery: targeted approaches for precision disease treatment

• Ana Cubillo Alvarez,
• Dylan Maguire and
• Ruairí P. Brannigan

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 435–463, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.34

• demonstrated that ARG-coated poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles significantly improved the internalisation of ASOs into cancer cells, leading to effective inhibition of miR-155, a known oncogene, and alteration of the splicing pattern of the Mcl-1 gene, promoting the pro-apoptotic isoform. In

Graphene oxide–chloroquine conjugate induces DNA damage in A549 lung cancer cells through autophagy modulation

• Braham Dutt Arya,
• Sandeep Mittal,
• Prachi Joshi,
• Alok Kumar Pandey,
• Jaime E. Ramirez-Vick,
• Govind Gupta and
• Surinder P. Singh

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 316–332, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.24

• exposure to starch-capped silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) [11]. Gemcitabine-encapsulated poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles have been shown to enhance cell death in chemoresistant PANC1 cells, human pancreatic epithelial carcinoma cells [12]. Also, TiO2 nanoparticles can sensitize A549 cells

Recent advances in photothermal nanomaterials for ophthalmic applications

• Jiayuan Zhuang,
• Linhui Jia,
• Chenghao Li,
• Rui Yang,
• Jiapeng Wang,
• Wen-an Wang,
• Heng Zhou and
• Xiangxia Luo

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 195–215, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.16

• reach the retina (the size of the ICG NPs should be greater than 100 nm). Therefore, in subsequent studies, two types of ICG NPs were synthesized using lipids and poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) [53]. Size, surface charge, and ICG concentration of the NPs were modulated by varying the synthesis

• conditions of the ICG NPs. Among them, only ICG liposomes synthesized using lipids can induce the production of VNBs. The ICG concentration in PLGA ICG NPs is below 15 μg·mL−1, which is not sufficient to rapidly increase the temperature to produce VNBs. Evaluation of the VNB effect in bovine retinal explants

Nanocarriers and macrophage interaction: from a potential hurdle to an alternative therapeutic strategy

• Naths Grazia Sukubo,
• Paolo Bigini and
• Annalisa Morelli

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 97–118, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.10

Biomimetic nanocarriers: integrating natural functions for advanced therapeutic applications

• Hugo Felix Perini,
• Beatriz Sodré Matos,
• Carlo José Freire de Oliveira and
• Marcos Vinicius da Silva

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1619–1626, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.127

• activity of polylactic glycolic acid (PLGA) nanoparticles coated with membranes, Zhang et al. (2021) tested nanoparticles loaded with gambogic acid and coated with red-blood-cell-derived membranes in colorectal cancer cells. They demonstrated a reduction in phagocytosis, increasing the circulation time of

• coated nanocarriers, such as PLGA NPs and silica NPs, enhance interactions with dendritic cells, leading to antitumor responses [25][26]. In a similar study with CMC-NPs composed of C-phycocyanin (C-PC) and a CD59-specific binding peptide (CD59sp), the antitumor activity of the C-PC/CMC-CD59sp

• antiviral treatments. Tan et al. (2021) employed lopinavir (LPV), an antiviral drug, in polymeric nanoparticles coated with macrophage membranes (PLGA-LPV@M). This biomimetic nanocarrier demonstrated the ability to inherit the antigenic profile of macrophages, enabling the absorption of pro-inflammatory

Polymer lipid hybrid nanoparticles for phytochemical delivery: challenges, progress, and future prospects

• Iqra Rahat,
• Pooja Yadav,
• Aditi Singhal,
• Mohammad Fareed,
• Jaganathan Raja Purushothaman,
• Mohammed Aslam,
• Raju Balaji,
• Sonali Patil-Shinde and
• Md. Rizwanullah

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1473–1497, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.118

• polyethylene glycol (PEG), poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), polycaprolactone (PCL), and chitosan (CHS), provides structural integrity, controlled release properties, and protection against premature degradation [14][15]. This hybrid structure improves the encapsulation efficiency of phytochemicals/drugs

Nanotechnological approaches for efficient N2B delivery: from small-molecule drugs to biopharmaceuticals

• Selin Akpinar Adscheid,
• Akif E. Türeli,
• Nazende Günday-Türeli and
• Marc Schneider

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1400–1414, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.113

• [77]. In addition to biopolymers, synthetic biodegradable and biocompatible polymers such as poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), which are approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for human administration [78] are relevant options. Extensive testing has been

• delivery. They showed that the transferrin-decorated NPs with the highest amount of targeting ligand exhibited the highest cellular uptake in the RPMI 2650 human epithelium cell line [79]. In another study, the researchers studied the chitosan coating of PLGA NPs regarding the mucosal uptake. Chatzitaki et

• al. reported the encapsulation of ropinirole hydrochloride (RH), an anti-Parkinson drug, into chitosan-coated PLGA NPs by the nanoprecipitation method to enhance drug delivery through the nasal mucosa. The researchers assessed the mucoadhesive properties by observing the ability of the NPs to adsorb

Synthesis, characterization and anticancer effect of doxorubicin-loaded dual stimuli-responsive smart nanopolymers

• Ömür Acet,
• Pavel Kirsanov,
• Burcu Önal Acet,
• Inessa Halets-Bui,
• Dzmitry Shcharbin,
• Şeyda Ceylan Cömert and
• Mehmet Odabaşı

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1189–1196, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.96

• inhibited at pH 5.0 in a medium with DOX–polyelectrolyte multilayers [41]. Regarding the possibility of using DOX-SNP complexes in vivo we can refer to the behavior of the similar PEG-PLGA-DOX polymersome complex [42]. It was found that PEG-PLGA-DOX polymersomes accumulated in tumor lesions, and after 48 h

Recent updates in applications of nanomedicine for the treatment of hepatic fibrosis

• Damai Ria Setyawati,
• Fransiska Christydira Sekaringtyas,
• Riyona Desvy Pratiwi,
• A’liyatur Rosyidah,
• Rohimmahtunnissa Azhar,
• Nunik Gustini,
• Gita Syahputra,
• Idah Rosidah,
• Etik Mardliyati,
• Tarwadi and
• Sjaikhurrizal El Muttaqien

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1105–1116, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.89

• , resulting in poor bioavailability. Regarding synthetic substances, Kurniawan and co-workers encapsulated the potent inhibitor R406 to inhibit spleen tyrosine kinase in inflammatory macrophages using poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) NPs (R406-PLGA) [45]. PLGA was used as polymeric platform as it is an

• FDA-approved biodegradable polymer. The R406-PLGA NPs (particle size of 159.7 nm) showed a significant downregulation of major inflammatory markers (CCL2, IL-1α, and IL-6) in vitro in murine bone marrow-derived macrophages. In an in vivo experiment using a methionine and choline-deficient (MCD) mouse

• model, the efficient intrahepatic delivery of R406-PLGA NPs ameliorated liver inflammation, fibrosis, and hepatic steatosis, probably because of improved pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of R406. Despite its favorable toxicity profile, only 19 drug formulations based on PLGA have been approved by

Therapeutic effect of F127-folate@PLGA/CHL/IR780 nanoparticles on folate receptor-expressing cancer cells

• Thi Ngoc Han Pham,
• Phuong-Thao Dang-Luong,
• Hong-Phuc Nguyen,
• Loc Le-Tuan,
• Xuan Thang Cao,
• Thanh-Danh Nguyen,
• Vy Tran Anh and
• Hieu Vu_Quang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 954–964, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.78

• therapeutic and diagnostic capabilities, have gained significant interest in drug research because of to their potential advantages. This study reports the development of a novel multifunctional nanoparticle carrier system based on poly(ᴅ,ʟ-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) for the targeted delivery of the

• chemotherapeutic agent chlorambucil (CHL) and the imaging agent IR780. The approach in this study incorporates Pluronic F127-folate onto the PLGA nanoparticles, which enables targeted delivery to folate receptor-expressing cancer cells. The F127-folate@PLGA/CHL/IR780 nanoparticles were formulated using a

• ). Additionally, the F127-folate@PLGA/CHL/IR780 nanoparticles exhibited a lower IC50 value against cancer cells than non-targeted F127@PLGA/CHL/IR780 nanoparticles. These findings suggest that the developed F127-folate@PLGA/CHL/IR780 nanoparticles hold promise as a theragnostic system for targeted cancer therapy

Electrospun nanofibers: building blocks for the repair of bone tissue

• Tuğrul Mert Serim,
• Gülin Amasya,
• Tuğba Eren-Böncü,
• Ceyda Tuba Şengel-Türk and
• Ayşe Nurten Özdemir

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 941–953, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.77

• Co. Ltd.)) [101]. The main polymeric nanofiber products on the market for bone regeneration are ReBOSSIS (Ortho Rebirth, Japan), a PLGA-based biomedical product for filling a synthetic bone cavity, poly-ʟ-lactic acid (PLLA) and collagen scaffolds (The Electrospinning Company, United Kingdom), and PCL

• -based nanofiber scaffolds for tissue regeneration (Stellenbosch Nanofiber Company, South Africa) [45]. ReBOSSIS consists of β-tricalcium phosphate, PLGA, and silicon-doped calcium carbonate to support bone formation. ReBOSSIS electrospun fibers are distinguished from other market products by a cotton

Nanomedicines against Chagas disease: a critical review

• Maria Jose Morilla,
• Kajal Ghosal and
• Eder Lilia Romero

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 333–349, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.30

• murine models, PLGA Nps (PLGA-CUR Nps) loaded with curcumin (the most active polyphenolic flavonoid constituent of Curcuma longa rhizomes with low bioavailability) and free BNZ, induced anti-inflammatory effects and cardiac protection. A low BNZ dose (750 mg/kg TD) plus PLGA-CUR Nps, reduced cardiac

Nanocarrier systems loaded with IR780, iron oxide nanoparticles and chlorambucil for cancer theragnostics

• Phuong-Thao Dang-Luong,
• Hong-Phuc Nguyen,
• Loc Le-Tuan,
• Xuan-Thang Cao,
• Vy Tran-Anh and
• Hieu Vu Quang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 180–189, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.17

• of these systems to serve as medication and imaging agent carriers for cancer treatment and diagnostics, respectively. Keywords: cancer; chlorambucil; F127-folate; IR780; iron oxide nanoparticles; PLGA; theragnostics; Introduction Theragnostic nanoparticles (NPs) are a diagnostic and therapeutic

• delivery system. The delivery system is comprised of three components: the carrier, the imaging agent, and the therapeutic drug, all of which need clinical approval before being used in humans. Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) is an approved biodegradable and biocompatible material for clinical use [1

• ]. Particularly, PLGA is widely used for nanoparticle formulation because it is a versatile material that can serve multiple functions, including transporting of therapeutic drugs and imaging agents [2][3]. In addition, PLGA can be altered in numerous ways to increase the half-life of nanoparticles in the blood

Curcumin-loaded nanostructured systems for treatment of leishmaniasis: a review

• Douglas Dourado,
• Thayse Silva Medeiros,
• Éverton do Nascimento Alencar,
• Edijane Matos Sales and
• Fábio Rocha Formiga

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 37–50, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.4

• , lipid nanoparticles, nano- and microemulsions, liposomes, or metallic nanoparticles [68]. Costa-Lima and colleagues incorporated bisnaphthalimidopropyldiaaminooctane (BNIPDaoct) into PLGA polymeric nanoparticles and obtained particles with sizes around 150 nm, with encapsulation efficiency around 90

• system and consequently the intracellular leishmanicidal activity [50][105]. Poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) is another polymer used for the development of nanoparticles for the treatment of leishmaniasis [107][108]. PLGA is an FDA-approved polymer that is commonly used in the synthesis of

• nanoparticles due to its special features such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, low toxicity, and adjuvanticity [109][110]. Given these properties, Tiwari and co-workers produced curcumin-loaded Eudragit-PLGA-nanoparticles (curc-E-PLGA-NPs) and evaluated their leishmanicidal activity with miltefosine

Nanotechnological approaches in the treatment of schistosomiasis: an overview

• Lucas Carvalho,
• Michelle Sarcinelli and
• Beatriz Patrício

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 13–25, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.2

• , an exponential drug release [17][20]. Our research found that many articles utilized poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) and chitosan nanoparticles, especially because they are biocompatible polymers and present great biodegradability. The polymer PLGA is approved for clinical use by Food and Drug

• nanoparticles are among the most widely utilized nanotechnological systems. Most research articles utilized gold nanoparticle as inorganic nanoparticles, while PLGA and chitosan are commonly utilized to produce polymeric nanoparticles due to its biocompatibility reported in various animal studies. However

Fluorescent bioinspired albumin/polydopamine nanoparticles and their interactions with Escherichia coli cells

• Eloïse Equy,
• Jordana Hirtzel,
• Sophie Hellé,
• Béatrice Heurtault,
• Eric Mathieu,
• Morgane Rabineau,
• Vincent Ball and
• Lydie Ploux

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2023, 14, 1208–1224, doi:10.3762/bjnano.14.100

• ) of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) [7], polycaprolactone [8], and chitosan [9]. Furthermore, fluorescent ONPs are a promising way to facilitate the localization of NPs in cells through fluorescence imaging. They can also be used for fluorescent labelling of cells, especially for live cell

• nanoplastics can penetrate and accumulate in bacterial cells [22], thus suggesting that other ONPs may have a similar fate in bacteria. In general, the mechanisms of action of ONPs used as drug nanocarriers in antibacterial applications are expected to vary with the nanoparticle type (e.g., liposomes or PLGA