Sustainable fabrication of 2D-based devices through reuse of substrates with microfabricated electrodes

• Ying Zhang,
• Yigit Sozen,
• Esteban Zamora-Amo,
• Thomas Pucher,
• Nuria Jiménez-Arévalo,
• Zdenek Sofer,
• Yong Xie and
• Andres Castellanos-Gomez

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 818–827, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.58

• effectively removes the MoS2 flakes while preserving the structural integrity of the electrodes, indicating that the method is compatible with different adhesion layers used beneath Au. The insets in Figure 2 provide zoomed-in optical images that further illustrate the removal of material from the electrode

Glycerol photoelectrochemical oxidation reaction at carbon nitrides/BiVO₄ materials

• Charles Garcia da Cunha,
• Isabelle M. D. Gonzaga,
• Cristian Hessel,
• Izadora F. Reis,
• Ivo F. Teixeira,
• Lucia H. Mascaro and
• Elton Sitta

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 806–817, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.57

• [6]. These strategies include the synthesis of new photocatalysts, such as metal oxides, doped oxides, heterojunctions, and protective layers to enhance charge transfer at both interfaces and in the bulk, thereby lowering the activation energy barriers [7]. In this sense, bismuth vanadate (BiVO4) has

• peaks related to the FTO (since the incident beam interacts with all layers of the material). The main FTO contributions are highlighted by the gray dashed lines. The film containing only BiVO4 presents a diffraction pattern consistent with the monoclinic structure, according to ICDD file 00-044-0081

• , respectively, are challenging to perform on these CN layers with the features of those thermally treated under the Bi layer. Interestingly, the higher activity observed for glycerol oxidation in PCN/BiVO4 is consistent with Gonzaga et al. [12], who reported enhanced BiVO4 activity when combined with PCN for

Tuning the electronic properties of defect-rich MoS₂

• Eric Juriatti,
• Martina Binninger,
• Carolin Schüle,
• Maren Zirwick,
• Katarina Margetic,
• Erika Giangrisostomi,
• Marcus Scheele and
• Heiko Peisert

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 796–805, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.56

• TMDC layers [15]. Since interaction mechanisms depend strongly on the central metal atom and the ionization potential of the phthalocyanine, we focus specifically on CoPcF16 and vary the properties of the substrate. In general, electronic defects play a crucial role in novel optoelectronic devices, as

• contrast, for the more defect-rich, 4 min Ar+-sputtered MoS2 substrate, we detect significant changes of the spectral shape. Most notably, the relative intensity of B2 at normal incidence (90°) is substantially weaker than B1 for 2–3 layers of CoPcF16 (Figure 2f) and almost completely vanishes for a

• increasing number of CoPcF16 layers. Consistent with the XAS results in Figure 2, an additional peak was found at 778–779 eV (see black arrows in Figure 3) for a monolayer coverage, which decreases in intensity as the thickness rises. The peak is particularly prominent for the longest sputtering times

Restorative potential of laser-synthesized silver nanoparticles with Salvia officinalis for periodontal disease treatment: an in vitro study

• Jelena Filipović Tričković,
• Sanja Živković,
• Bojana Ilić,
• Miloš Tošić,
• Jelena Marinković,
• Ana Valenta Šobot and
• Miloš Momčilović

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 781–795, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.55

• resulting dH value represents the nanoparticle size in a hydrated state, along with the adjacent layers of water or sage extract molecules, expanding the hydrodynamic diameter, which cannot be observed by TEM. These differences are more pronounced for dwAgNPs6mJ, suggesting a certain extent of particle

Substrate-dependent pore formation in molybdenum disulfide monolayers under ion irradiation

• Yossarian Liebsch,
• Umair Javed,
• Lucia Skopinski,
• Leon Daniel,
• Franziska Appel,
• Radia Rahali,
• Clara Grygiel,
• Henning Lebius,
• Carolin Frank,
• Lars Breuer,
• Leon Kirsch,
• Frieder Koch,
• Jani Kotakoski and
• Marika Schleberger

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 769–780, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.54

• -of-plane dissipation without changing the substrate material. Although adjacent layers are coupled only weakly via van der Waals forces, a second (or third) MoS2 layer can act as an additional reservoir for charge and excitation redistribution relative to an isolated monolayer, offering a simplified

• present but limited in magnitude: Coupling to a second layer is sufficient to modify pore formation, yet the available excitation appears insufficient to efficiently drive a fully perforating defect through three layers. The observed anisotropy of the defects (radius ≈2.2 nm; depth ≈1.5 nm) likely

• -irradiated suspended monolayers, a fraction of ion impacts generate local energy densities below the threshold required for pore formation, depending on the trajectory relative to atomic sites. Adding a substrate and/or additional layers reduces the likelihood of such “sub-threshold” events because energy

Interface-engineered Caco-2 cell culture on a collagen-coated liquid–liquid interface in a microfluidic device

• Satoru Kuriu and
• Soo Hyeon Kim

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 760–768, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.53

• rectangularity decreased to approximately 87%, comparable to the rectangularity observed for aqueous layers in channels 5 and 10 mm wide at a height of 7 mm. These results indicate that channel height is also a critical parameter for the formation of the liquid–liquid interface. Rectangularity was evaluated by

Tailoring Ag–Pt nanoalloys through solid-state dewetting: structural and optical insights

• Marcin Łapiński,
• Piotr Okoczuk,
• Blaž Grobiša,
• Ewa Pawlikowska,
• Amelia Rozwadowska,
• Wojciech Sadowski and
• Barbara Kościelska

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 748–759, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.52

• to be thermally activated dewetting of thin metal films deposited on glass or other substrates [9][10][11][12]. This method is noteworthy due to its cost-effectiveness, making it a compelling alternative for various applications. From a thermodynamic perspective, continuous metallic layers with

• metallic layers is their thickness: the thinner the layer, the lower the temperature at which it transforms into isolated islands. It can be stated that the significant influence of surface energy in thin-film structures, phase separation boundaries (layer–substrate, layer–liquid phase), grain boundaries

• . Observations of alloy formation at the nanoscale confirm that the miscibility between different metals can significantly increase as particle size decreases [3][4][5][6][33]. Nevertheless, in the case of nanoalloy formation induced by thermal dewetting of alternately deposited thin metallic layers, it is

Superconducting artificial neural networks and quantum circuits

• Anatolie S. Sidorenko

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 744–747, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.51

• is a time-consuming process. To reduce the number of costly technological iterations, modelling of technological processes is essential for predicting the properties of prepared layers and multilayers. Smart computational experiments based on a mathematical model describing coordinated atomic motion

• predict unique magnetic properties of thin cobalt-based layers widely used in hybrid superconductor–ferromagnet structures for superconducting spintronics [18][19]. New elements of quantum circuits based on transmon “superconducting atoms” demonstrate rapid qubit control in real superconducting systems

Environmental applications of silver nanoparticles: state-of-the-art review and emerging trends

• Soni Prajapati,
• Akash Kumar and
• Ranjana Singh

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 697–736, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.49

Cellulose as a photocatalyst support material: extraction, structural features, and environmental applications

• Yee Teng Lim,
• Nur Farhana Jaafar,
• Azizul Hakim Lahuri and
• Endang Tri Wahyuni

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 635–652, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.44

• with conductive polymers, depositing metallic layers on them, converting them through carbonization, and integrating them with carbon nanotubes (CNTs), each approach offering unique pathways to tailor the performance of CNCs-based conductive nanomaterials [87]. Cellulose-based nanostructured

Recent progress in enhancing built-in electric fields of perovskite solar cells via junction engineering

• Tong Xiao and
• Ke Xu

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 602–621, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.42

• modulations into the bulk to realize continuous potential profiles over larger length scales. The vertical gradients and thickness-dependent extensions of these effects are discussed in the following section on gradient junctions. In PSCs, the band structures of charge transport layers (CTLs) and their

• interfacial compatibility are critical factors governing device performance [3][22][23]. Compared with organic hole transport layers (HTLs) such as Spiro-MeOTAD [24], PEDOT:PSS [25], and PTAA [26], which are prone to moisture absorption and exhibit poor thermal stability, inorganic materials such as CuO [27

• that dopants fail to penetrate the crystalline domains of the polymer, limiting the achievable doping level. To overcome this limitation, Zhang et al. [31] proposed an anion-assisted molecular-doping (AMD) strategy using BF4− for the PTAA and Poly-TPD hole-transport layers in p–i–n inverted devices

Probing tribological evolution in atomically thin MoS₂ at different scales

• Xingzhong Zeng and
• Miao Zhang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 586–597, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.40

• layers increases, attributed to the reduced out-of-plane flexibility in thicker films. Critically, we identify the slip distance during the slip phase as a reliable metric for sub-nanoscale stick–slip motion. The slip distance increases with the frequency of sub-nanoscale stick–slip events and exhibits a

• inertness [13][14][15]. Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) as a representative 2D materials is particularly promising because of its trilayered structure (one Mo layer sandwiched between two S layers) and tunable interlayer interactions, making it a model system for investigating the nanoscale and sub-nanoscale

• puckering effect [17][18]. However, these studies focused on nanoscale phenomena; the sub-nanoscale origins of stick–slip motion remains unaddressed. Here, we use a calibrated AFM to quantitatively study the sub-nanoscale friction behaviors of a single layer (1L) and four layers (4L) of MoS2 under different

Probing internal continua and atomic ultrafast charge transfer within size-controlled nanoparticles by post-collision interaction in core-hole clock spectroscopy

• Johannes Lütgert,
• Erika Giangrisostomi,
• Nomi L. A. N. Sorgenfrei and
• Alexander Föhlisch

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 505–514, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.33

• local charge transfer dynamics and internal continuum states. We observe an acceleration of charge transfer times by almost one order of magnitude in thin-shell quantum dots, comprising only one or three double layers of ZnS, before reaching a size-independent limit. This size-dependence is governed by

• the existence of a faster charge transfer channel toward the CdSe core, only accessible for the inner-most shell layers, rather than a quantum confinement effect. By extending the traditional PCI model from free-electron systems to bound-state continua, we further establish a framework for

• interpreting line shape asymmetries and peak shifts that are frequently observed but often overlooked in resonant Auger measurements. We show that the strongly enhanced PCI in the samples with one or three double layers can be attributed to reduced collective electronic screening. This comprehensive

Upcycling agroindustrial waste into graphene oxide supports for gold nanoparticles: toward sustainable nanomaterials

• Juan Marcos Castro-Tapia,
• Selene Acosta,
• Hiram Joazet Ojeda-Galván,
• Elsie Evelyn Araujo-Palomo,
• Edgar Giovanni Villabona-Leal and
• Mildred Quintana

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 489–504, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.32

• conventionally synthesized through oxidation of graphite by chemical methods such as the Hummers' method or its modifications, which involve strong acids (e.g., H2SO4 or H3PO4), oxidants (e.g., KMnO4), and occasionally NaNO3 to facilitate exfoliation and oxidation of the graphite layers [6][7][8][9][10]. While

• coordination to AuCl4− than hydroxy and carboxyl groups. Moreover, residual biomass-derived carbonaceous layers or amorphous carbon deposits may partially mask the GO surface, physically blocking otherwise reactive sites. The combination of these factors reduces the effective density of accessible nucleation

Defects and defect-mediated engineering of two-dimensional materials: challenges and open questions

• Arkady V. Krasheninnikov,
• Matthias Batzill,
• Anouar-Akacha Delenda,
• Marija Drndić,
• Chris Ewels,
• Katharina J. Franke,
• Mahdi Ghorbani-Asl,
• Alexander Holleitner,
• Ado Jorio,
• Ute Kaiser,
• Daria Kieczka,
• Hannu-Pekka Komsa,
• Jani Kotakoski,
• Manuel Längle,
• David Lamprecht,
• Yun Liu,
• Steven G. Louie,
• Janina Maultzsch,
• Thomas Michely,
• Katherine Milton,
• Anna Niggas,
• Hanako Okuno,
• Joshua A. Robinson,
• Marika Schleberger,
• Bruno Schuler,
• Alexander Shluger,
• Kazu Suenaga,
• Kristian S. Thygesen,
• Richard A. Wilhelm,
• E. Harriet Åhlgren and
• Carla Bittencourt

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 454–488, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.31

• layers was predicted to be very high [62], hampering the vacancy diffusion mechanism. Nevertheless, a relatively thick native oxide layer can still form on otherwise stable HfS2 after plasma oxidation. In this process, O ions are believed to permeate through grain boundaries between small crystals and

• contains a mirror twin boundary as a 1D line defect, in full analogy to a 3D twin crystal with a 2D twin plane. An atomic model of a mirror twin crystal with a MTB as formed in single layers of MoS2 is shown in Figure 10a. Such MTBs emerge when the threefold-symmetric MoS2 is grown on a sixfold-symmetric

• substrates or adjacent layers in multilayered structures. Techniques such as angle-resolved XPS may address this issue by varying the photoelectron emission angle, enabling depth profiling and providing insights into defect distributions across different layers [193][194][195]. The complexity of defect types

Nanocarrier-integrated multilayer films produced by 3D printing for improved skin adhesion and curcumin photostability

• Thayse Viana de Oliveira,
• Ana Paula Farias Leão,
• Júlia Leão,
• Cesar Liberato Petzhold and
• Ruy Carlos Ruver Beck

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 440–453, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.30

• efficiency. Films were fabricated containing either C-NCs (FC-NC) or unloaded curcumin (FC) and consisted of three layers, namely, a chitosan-based bottom layer, a middle layer of carboxymethylcellulose and alginate, and a carboxymethylcellulose top layer incorporating titanium dioxide (TiO2). The lower and

• intermediate layers contained C-NC or curcumin. The final films (15 × 15 × 1.5 mm) contained 282.20 ± 7.75 µg and 246.80 ± 6.70 µg of curcumin in FC-NC and FC, respectively. Films containing the bottom chitosan layer exhibited the highest bioadhesion, while the presence of a TiO2 top layer effectively

• limited. Therefore, in the present study, we designed 3D-printed topical films comprising three distinct layers, namely, (i) a bottom layer composed of a chitosan gel containing curcumin, (ii) an intermediate layer composed of carboxymethylcellulose, alginate gel, and curcumin, and (iii) a top layer

First-principles study on elastic properties of Cu, (Cu_1−x,Ni_x)₃Sn and interfacial mechanical properties of (Cu_1−x,Ni_x)₃Sn/Cu in the lead-free solder joint

• Guomin Hua

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 428–439, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.29

• calculated. Based on the orientation relationship of Cu3Sn/Cu interfaces [13], namely, (001)ε//(111)Cu and [100]ε//[−110]Cu, the interface was constructed by adhering Cu and (CuxNi1−x)3Sn slabs. The Cu slab consisted of four atomic layers, the (CuxNi1−x)3Sn slab consisted of three atomic layers, and the

• layers, a Cu slab with four atomic layers, and a vacuum layer with thickness of 1 nm. The adjacent atomic layers of Cu slab and (CuxNi1−x)3Sn slab were free, and the remaining atomic layers of Cu slab and (CuxNi1−x)3Sn slab were fixed. The thickness of the interface layer was defined as thickness of free

• atomic layers, a. Tensile stress was applied along the direction normal to the interface plane, and the relationship between tensile stress and tensile strain of (CuxNi1−x)3Sn/Cu interfaces were calculated (Figure 4b). The tensile modulus, Etensile, was determined as the ratio of the tensile stress to

Polycatecholamine nanocoatings on stainless steel: the effect on attachment of human fibroblasts and platelets

• Paulina Trzaskowska,
• Ewa Rybak,
• Maciej Trzaskowski,
• Kamil Kopeć,
• Jakub Krzemiński,
• Rafał Podgórski,
• Hatice Genc,
• Mehtap Civelek and
• Iwona Cicha

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 365–380, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.25

• layers on stainless steel 316L via a novel in situ oxidation process and evaluated their physicochemical properties and cellular interactions at the nano/microscale. Surface characterization revealed that the polymeric coatings formed a homogenous layer with distinct topographical features and thickness

• stability. Consequently, a variety of surface modifications have been developed to improve cell–material interactions, including anodized nanopit arrays, hydroxyapatite–collagen layers on polydopamine-modified steel, nanoporous coatings influencing integrin/ERK signaling, and bilayers comprising graphene

• 1.58 and 4.09 µm, respectively. For PTYR, much thinner coating layers were measured, with a mean value of 308.78 nm (range: 168–441 nm) for SS-PTYR 30 min and mean value of 360.86 nm (range: 243–637 nm) for SS-PTYR 24 h. As expected, the thickness of PDA and PTYR layers increased with the coating time

Ferroelectric nanodot reservoir for neuromorphic computing

• Anna Razumnaya,
• Yuri Tikhonov,
• Dmitrii Naidenko,
• Léo Boron,
• Valerii Vinokur and
• Igor Lukyanchuk

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 352–364, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.24

• individual nanodots, intrinsic nonlinearity, stemming from the hysteretic switching behavior, and flexible integration, including time- and space-multiplexing schemes for efficient data exchange with synaptic layers. As an extension of the proposed platform, the ferroelectric nanodots can be designed to host

Beam shaping techniques for pulsed laser ablation in liquids: Unlocking tunable control of nanoparticle synthesis in liquids

• Sergio Molina-Prados,
• Nadezhda M. Bulgakova,
• Alexander V. Bulgakov,
• Jesus Lancis,
• Gladys Mínguez Vega and
• Carlos Doñate-Buendia

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 309–342, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.22

• this procedure is not so evident. The diameter of the ablated spots under different water layers for a 120 fs pulsed beam with a spherical lens of 40 mm focal length is shown in Figure 5. When ablation is carried out in air, the craters caused in the target have the smallest diameter when the relative

Fast vortex dynamics and relaxation times in NbRe-based heterostructures

• Francesco De Chiara,
• Zahra Makhdoumi Kakhaki,
• Francesco Avitabile,
• Francesco Colangelo,
• Abhishek Kumar,
• Carmine Attanasio and
• Carla Cirillo

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 292–302, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.20

• by the time-dependent magnetic flux, resulting in a magnetic breaking effect [29][30]. In the opposite limit of thin capping layers, the proximity effect plays a dominant role leading to an enhancement of the critical vortex velocity and promoting faster relaxation processes [26][27][28]. In this

• deposition rates were later calibrated ex situ using a Bruker Dektak XT stylus profilometer by measuring step heights in samples. In the NbRe/Au sample, the NbRe layer has a thickness = 20 nm, while = 15 nm in the NbRe/Py sample. The corresponding Au and Py layers are dAu = 5 nm and dPy = 4 nm. Given the

• bilayers cannot be ascribed to the different thicknesses of the NbRe layers since NbRe films of the same thickness exhibit nearly identical superconducting critical temperatures (around 7 K, ΔTc ≈ 0.1 K) and low-temperature resistivities, of the order of ρ = 140 μΩ·cm [19]. In contrast, the capping layers

Advancing nanolithography: a comprehensive review of materials for local anodic oxidation with AFM

• Matteo Lorenzoni

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 275–291, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.19

• layers as thin as sub-nanometer for SiO2 [37] and extending to tens of nanometers for materials such as SiOxCy [34], TiOx, and MoOx [38]. In contrast, atomic layer deposition (ALD) provides exceptional conformality and atomic-scale thickness control, typically depositing films at 0.1–0.2 nm per cycle [39

• positive and negative tone as well as self-development reactions within ultrathin molecular resist layers [56][65][66], with resolutions reaching sub-10 nm scales [67]. As demonstrated by Prof. Ivo W. Rangelov and colleagues, FEL relies on the high-intensity electric fields generated at the sharp AFM tip

• extensive use in microelectronics, the predictable oxidation behavior, and compatibility with microfabrication processes. The formation of SiO2 enables high-resolution patterning, often achieving feature sizes below 10 nm, making it invaluable for applications like insulating layers in transistors

Multilayered hyperbolic Au/TiO₂ nanostructures for enhancing the nonlinear response around the epsilon-near-zero point

• Fernando Arturo Araiza-Sixtos,
• Mauricio Gomez-Robles,
• Rafael Salas-Montiel and
• Raúl Rangel-Rojo

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 251–261, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.17

• found that we could avoid problems like lack of adherence between the layers. We also decided that, instead of relying on a tunable femtosecond source, we would manipulate the material geometry to design different samples with an ENZ point at different wavelength values around 800 nm, that is, we will

• employ the effective medium approximation (EMA) to calculate the properties of the whole system. It is important to note that the layers must follow a metal–dielectric repetition sequence. For a metal and a dielectric with permittivities εm and εd, respectively, it is possible to obtain a relation for

• the principal components and of the composite, which are given by [25]: where dm and dd are the widths of the metallic and dielectric layers, respectively, as seen in Figure 1a. The z-scan technique employed to study the nonlinear properties of the samples involves normal incident light, where the

Comparative study on 3D morphologies of delignified, single tracheids and fibers of five wood species

• Helen Gorges,
• Felicitas von Usslar,
• Cordt Zollfrank,
• Silja Flenner,
• Imke Greving,
• Martin Müller,
• Clemens F. Schaber,
• Chuchu Li and
• Stanislav N. Gorb

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 239–250, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.16

• (S1 and S2) and a tertiary wall (T) strongly supplemented by lignin. Apart from the middle lamella (ML) and the primary wall (P), the S2 layer being the thickest of the three main layers (S1, S2, and T), is the most important for mechanical support [1][10][11]. Lignin is present in all layers of the

• secondary and tertiary wall structure, with varying distribution and concentration across these layers but the highest proportions generally found in the S2 and T layers (spruce earlywood: ML 26.8%, S1 10.4%, S2+T 62.8%; spruce latewood: ML 18.4%, S1 7.9%, S2+T 73.7%) [12][13]. Moreover, lignification plays

Gold nanoparticle-decorated reduced graphene oxide as a highly effective catalyst for the selective α,β-dehydrogenation of N-alkyl-4-piperidones

• Brenda Flore Kenyim,
• Mihir Tzalis,
• Marilyn Kaul,
• Robert Oestreich,
• Aysenur Limon,
• Chancellin Pecheu Nkepdep and
• Christoph Janiak

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 218–238, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.15

• a heterogeneous, rough surface with lamellar layers and pronounced macroporosity. The rGO carbon (Figure 2b) exhibits a structure composed of thin, wrinkled, and sheet-like layers, characteristic of exfoliated graphene-based materials. The morphology of CB (Figure 2c) is formed of highly aggregated

• AuNPs and carbon layers. Similar behavior has been reported in other Au–polyoxometalate systems where the W signal dominates and the Si 2p peak is below detection limits [45]. Collectively, these XPS results confirm that gold is predominantly metallic (Au0) and the rGO support contains functional groups

• layers and lower microporosity of rGO (Figure 2 and Figure S1, Supporting Information File 1) minimize product entrapment, thereby enhancing overall catalytic efficiency. These textural properties make rGO the most effective support for AuNP catalysts. For the AC- and CB-based composites, a higher