Phytol-loaded soybean oil nanoemulsion as a promising alternative against Leishmania amazonensis

• Victória Louise Pinto Freire,
• Mariana Farias Alves-Silva,
• Johny W. de Freitas Oliveira,
• Matheus de Freitas Fernandes-Pedrosa,
• Alianda Maira Cornélio,
• Marcelo de Souza-Silva,
• Thayse Silva Medeiros and
• Arnóbio Antônio da Silva Junior

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1826–1836, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.126

• internalization by the parasite. Importantly, previous studies have demonstrated that nanoemulsions are efficiently internalized by macrophages, which reinforces the potential of our formulation to also target intracellular amastigotes. Taken together, our results pave the way for further in vitro assays on

Exploring the potential of polymers: advancements in oral nanocarrier technology

• Rousilândia de Araujo Silva,
• Igor Eduardo Silva Arruda,
• Luise Lopes Chaves,
• Mônica Felts de La Roca Soares and
• Jose Lamartine Soares Sobrinho

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1751–1793, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.122

• , along with the mechanisms of active substance internalization and release within the body. Special attention is given to how PNs have been applied to enhance the oral delivery of peptides, nucleic acids, poorly soluble drugs, and small molecules. Additionally, current strategies for administration and

• ]. Endocytosis is the primary pathway through which NPs enter cells. Hydrophobic polymeric NPs often exhibit stronger interactions with the lipid bilayer, which may facilitate their internalization through endocytic mechanisms. In contrast, hydrophilic NPs tend to adsorb onto the cell membrane surface before

• scavenger receptors) on phagocytic cells. These particles are internalized through the plasma membrane, forming a cup-shaped invagination that develops into phagosomes. These phagosomes subsequently fuse with lysosomes, where the contents undergo acidic degradation [78][79]. Internalization of PNs by

Advances of aptamers in esophageal cancer diagnosis, treatment and drug delivery

• Yang Fei,
• Hui Xu,
• Chunwei Zhang,
• Jingjing Wang and
• Yong Jin

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1734–1750, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.121

• et al. [107] designed a PEI–aptamer–EPI nanoplatform that relies on high ATP concentrations to release epirubicin (EPI). The polyethyleneimine (PEI) coating makes the whole delivery system positively charged, enables better adsorption to cell membranes, and promotes internalization. In vitro release

Multifunctional anionic nanoemulsion with linseed oil and lecithin: a preliminary approach for dry eye disease

• Niédja Fittipaldi Vasconcelos,
• Almerinda Agrelli,
• Rayane Cristine Santos da Silva,
• Carina Lucena Mendes-Marques,
• Isabel Renata de Souza Arruda,
• Priscilla Stela Santana de Oliveira,
• Mércia Liane de Oliveira and
• Giovanna Machado

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1711–1733, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.120

Prospects of nanotechnology and natural products for cancer and immunotherapy

• Jan Filipe Andrade Santos,
• Marcela Bernardes Brasileiro,
• Pamela Danielle Cavalcante Barreto,
• Ligiane Aranha Rocha and
• José Adão Carvalho Nascimento Júnior

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1644–1667, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.116

• editing efficiency, MTT assay, and flow cytometry tests were carried out to observe the therapeutic activity of the technology. The results demonstrated that the nanoparticles increased targeting and internalization, had a knockout rate of 80%, and exhibited better inhibition of HepG2 cell proliferation

Enhancing the therapeutical potential of metalloantibiotics using nano-based delivery systems

• Alejandro Llamedo,
• Marina Cano,
• Raquel G. Soengas and
• Francisco J. García-Alonso

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1350–1366, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.98

• receptors and ligands, as well as the number of interactions necessary to overcome the energy barrier for cellular uptake. Properly balancing these factors ensures efficient binding and internalization of the nanoparticles by the target cells [50][51]. For example, nanoparticles can be engineered to

• tenfold increase in efficacy against M. smegmatis and M. bovis relative to the free Zn complex. Immunofluorescence analyses confirmed selective uptake of Zn-RIF-Tf-QDs by macrophages and dendritic cells, with minimal internalization by lung epithelial cells and no evidence of cytotoxicity or genotoxicity

Better together: biomimetic nanomedicines for high performance tumor therapy

• Imran Shair Mohammad,
• Gizem Kursunluoglu,
• Anup Kumar Patel,
• Hafiz Muhammad Ishaq,
• Cansu Umran Tunc,
• Dilek Kanarya,
• Mubashar Rehman,
• Omer Aydin and
• Yin Lifang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1246–1276, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.92

• ]. In that study, a PEGylated-lipid nanoparticle (PEG-liposome) with a mesoporous silica nanoparticle core (LM) was prepared, and then the nanosystem was coated with CCM (CCM@LM). The biomimetic nanomedicine showed high internalization in a way similar to an enveloped virus. The PEGylation of the inner

• cavity provided subcellular localization of payload in the nucleus subsequent to cellular internalization. The whole nanosystem demonstrated a significant anti-tumor activity. Shao et al. established X-ray-responsive CCM-covered mesoporous organosilica nanoparticles for the controlled release of DOX [135

• -HNPs) selectively recognized the source cells and increased the cellular internalization up to nine-fold via homotypic binding. Moreover, the A549/T CM-HNPs sensitized MDR cells to PTX by suppressing the P-gp activity 3.2-fold and induced apoptosis (70%) in homologous A549/T cells [45] (Figure 8). Kong

Piezoelectricity of hexagonal boron nitrides improves bone tissue generation as tested on osteoblasts

• Sevin Adiguzel,
• Nilay Cicek,
• Zehra Cobandede,
• Feray B. Misirlioglu,
• Hulya Yilmaz and
• Mustafa Culha

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1068–1081, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.78

• identical. Despite their different structures, sizes, charges, and shapes, which affect their internalization [65], BaTiO3 was taken up by cells in a concentration-dependent manner, leading to increased cell granulation, as depicted in Figure 4. Furthermore, the SSC% shift in BaTiO3+US treated cells

Serum heat inactivation diminishes ApoE-mediated uptake of D-Lin-MC3-DMA lipid nanoparticles

• Demian van Straten,
• Luuk van de Schepop,
• Rowan Frunt,
• Pieter Vader and
• Raymond M. Schiffelers

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 740–748, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.57

• internalization of RNA molecules by target cells [23]. Several LNP encapsulated RNA-based therapeutics have achieved approval by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) [24], including patisiran/Onpattro for the treatment of hereditary transthyretin amyloidosis. Onpattro LNPs are administered

Nanomaterials in targeting amyloid-β oligomers: current advances and future directions for Alzheimer's disease diagnosis and therapy

• Shiwani Randhawa,
• Trilok Chand Saini,
• Manik Bathla,
• Rahul Bhardwaj,
• Rubina Dhiman and
• Amitabha Acharya

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 561–580, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.44

• -fold. These exosomes exhibited rapid internalization in SH-SY5Y cells and co-localized with FITC-conjugated AβOs. Furthermore, CCk-8 assays demonstrated that US-HA-Exos could alleviate AβO toxicity in vitro [85]. Li et al. investigated M2 microglia-derived exosomes (M2-EXOs) and their impact on AD

Development of a mucoadhesive drug delivery system and its interaction with gastric cells

• Ahmet Baki Sahin,
• Serdar Karakurt and
• Deniz Sezlev Bilecen

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 371–384, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.28

• rate. The mucoadhesive characteristic of the system was tested in situ and in vitro. In addition, the in vitro cytotoxicity and internalization of the nanoparticles by mucus-secreting gastric cells were also investigated. We believe that usage of the developed system may increase the retention time of

• concluded that EudAlg nanoparticles do not significantly affect the viability of AGS cell (Figure 4A). Internalization of nanoparticles When nanoparticles are designed for biomedical applications, two important properties to be considered are toxicity and cellular uptake. The cellular uptake of

• nanoparticles is a dynamic process where both endocytosis and exocytosis are involved. The uptake also depends on the concentration of nanoparticles and the duration of the process. Studies conducted with the AGS cell line revealed that nanoparticle internalization generally reaches a plateau within the first 2

Graphene oxide–chloroquine conjugate induces DNA damage in A549 lung cancer cells through autophagy modulation

• Braham Dutt Arya,
• Sandeep Mittal,
• Prachi Joshi,
• Alok Kumar Pandey,
• Jaime E. Ramirez-Vick,
• Govind Gupta and
• Surinder P. Singh

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 316–332, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.24

• in 115 mL of solution and the amount of unbound drug left in supernatant, respectively. where mo, msup, and mGO are total amount of drug used initially, unbound drug obtained in the supernatant, and weight of GO, respectively. Cellular internalization of the GO–Chl nanoconjugate and flow-cytometry

• -based propidium iodide uptake analysis The efficacy of nanomedicines mainly depends upon the effective cellular internalization and their transport to the appropriate intercellular effector site [52][53]. Studies have shown that based on its size and surface characteristics (i.e., hydrophilicity or

• of vacuoles were observed in the treated cells (Figure 4a, black arrows). Furthermore, TEM micrographs reveal the presence and effective cellular internalization of the GO–Chl nanoconjugate in A549 cells (Figure 4a; red arrows and Figure 4b), corroborating our previous findings [25]. To investigate

Radiosensitizing properties of dual-functionalized carbon nanostructures loaded with temozolomide

• Radmila Milenkovska,
• Nikola Geskovski,
• Dushko Shalabalija,
• Ljubica Mihailova,
• Petre Makreski,
• Dushko Lukarski,
• Igor Stojkovski,
• Maja Simonoska Crcarevska and
• Kristina Mladenovska

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 229–251, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.18

• through the BBTB and uptake into the tumor cells were obtained, as a precondition for higher extent and rate of their internalization and optimal risk/benefit ratio of the treatment with TMZ. This knowledge is based on a lot of publications in which nanoparticulated formulations of different materials

• cell membranes observed after uptake of GO. The mechanisms of MWCNTs-G internalization have not been specifically studied; however, the knowledge from studies of CNTs and graphene/GO can be extrapolated. Some of the previous publications show accumulation of CNTs in phagocytic cells without toxic

• mediate the internalization in addition to the impact of interaction with the biological fluids (i.e., surface adsorption of molecules). In this respect, in the study of Dabrowski et al. [81], the impact of particle size of graphene on the efficacy of internalization was evaluated in normal (LL-24) and

Nanocarriers and macrophage interaction: from a potential hurdle to an alternative therapeutic strategy

• Naths Grazia Sukubo,
• Paolo Bigini and
• Annalisa Morelli

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 97–118, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.10

• affect NP internalization. They actively engulf NCs and accelerate their clearance, acting differentially in a time-dependent manner and altering the fate of nanomaterials [26]. In addition to immune-related barriers, the physicochemical properties of the nanomaterial itself can impair the NCs’ ability

• shapes like ellipsoids, discoids, and nanorods with higher aspect ratios are more effectively localized close to blood vessel walls, enhancing their internalization into endothelial cells and potentially improving their therapeutic delivery [1]. After systemic administration, NCs tend to accumulate in

• in KCs, is essential for clearing infections caused by the Gram-positive bacterium Listeria monocytogenes [30]. In nanomedicine, SRs are also responsible for clearing negatively charged NPs such as those composed of silica [31][32]. This interaction leads to the internalization of NCs via endocytosis

Mechanistic insights into endosomal escape by sodium oleate-modified liposomes

• Ebrahim Sadaqa,
• Satrialdi,
• Fransiska Kurniawan and
• Diky Mudhakir

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1667–1685, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.131

• transforming drug delivery methodologies [1]. Despite their potential, liposomes encounter substantial challenges from the point of administration to achieving therapeutic efficacy. One of the primary obstacles is their propensity for endosomal entrapment. Following internalization via endocytosis, liposomes

• inhibitor of caveolae-mediated endocytosis, also significantly reduced uptake (p < 0.001), suggesting the involvement of caveolae in the internalization of Unmodified-Lipo. Amiloride, which blocks macropinocytosis, had no significant effect (p < 0.99), indicating a negligible role for macropinocytosis in

• findings that fatty acids often use macropinocytosis for internalization [17]. Filipin significantly inhibited uptake (p < 0.001), showing that caveolae-mediated endocytosis also plays an important role in SO-Lipo uptake. These results align with reports that anionic particles undergo caveolae-mediated

Biomimetic nanocarriers: integrating natural functions for advanced therapeutic applications

• Hugo Felix Perini,
• Beatriz Sodré Matos,
• Carlo José Freire de Oliveira and
• Marcos Vinicius da Silva

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1619–1626, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.127

• -based nanocarriers is understanding the fundamental building blocks, size, shape, and biological properties to mimic real cells and enable their internalization [31][32]. One efficient strategy for producing biomimetic nanocarriers involves camouflage with biological membranes. The phospholipids

Polymer lipid hybrid nanoparticles for phytochemical delivery: challenges, progress, and future prospects

• Iqra Rahat,
• Pooja Yadav,
• Aditi Singhal,
• Mohammad Fareed,
• Jaganathan Raja Purushothaman,
• Mohammed Aslam,
• Raju Balaji,
• Sonali Patil-Shinde and
• Md. Rizwanullah

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1473–1497, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.118

• . Cell cycle analysis and apoptotic studies by flow cytometry revealed much higher apoptotic activity and cellular internalization of CUR-PLHNPs in MCF-7 cells compared to free CUR. Further, the CUR-PLHNPs showed a significantly lower IC50 value (i.e., 7 µg/mL) than free CUR (10.72 µg/mL). Zhao et al

• . fabricated RGD ligand-directed PLHNPs for site-specific delivery of CUR to treat melanoma [83]. The CUR-RGD-PLHNPs showed small PS, low polydispersity index (PDI), high ZP, and high EE. The CUR-RGD-PLHNPs showed 4.3 times higher cellular internalization in HUVECs cells than the native counterpart. Apoptotic

• studies in AsPC-1 and BxPC-3 cells suggested that the fabricated UA-PLHNPs exhibited much higher cellular internalization and cytotoxicity. Further, the developed AU-PLHNPs revealed negligible erythrocyte hemolytic activity. Similarly, Wang et al. fabricated UA-encapsulated chitosan-coated liposomes for

Nanotechnological approaches for efficient N2B delivery: from small-molecule drugs to biopharmaceuticals

• Selin Akpinar Adscheid,
• Akif E. Türeli,
• Nazende Günday-Türeli and
• Marc Schneider

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1400–1414, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.113

• ]. N2B drug transport includes intracellular, paracellular, and extracellular mechanisms [42]. While the intracellular pathway is based on the drug’s internalization by the neurons followed by axonal transport, the extracellular pathway is based on the drugs’ transport through the paracellular space [61

• [67][68]. Significant portions of the NPs studied for N2B delivery are approx. 200 nm, which is the average size of olfactory exons [44][60]. Rejman et al. demonstrated that the clathrin-mediated pathway of endocytosis has an upper limit for internalization of approximately 200 nm. Their study also

• revealed that an increase in particle size led to a shift towards caveolae-mediated internalization, the primary pathway for particles sized around 500 nm [69]. This shows the possibility of an even more extended particle size range to be considered for N2B delivery [69]. Regarding surface characteristics

Interaction of graphene oxide with tannic acid: computational modeling and toxicity mitigation in C. elegans

• Romana Petry,
• James M. de Almeida,
• Francine Côa,
• Felipe Crasto de Lima,
• Diego Stéfani T. Martinez and
• Adalberto Fazzio

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1297–1311, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.105

• directly affects delivered dose, internalization, and biodistribution in organisms. In the EPA medium, GO exhibited aggregation and precipitation at concentrations of 5.0 and 10 mg·L−1, respectively, a phenomenon attributable to the screening effect of salt ions diminishing the repulsive forces between GO

• each depth was recorded in the profiles shown in Figure 7, which were normalized regarding the maximum intensity found in the region. The intensity profiles and the respective spectra, were used to draw conclusions about GO’s internalization in the organisms. According to Figure 7, GO was found along

• the entire nematode cuticle. Furthermore, GO was found internally in the head, intestine, and pharynx of nematodes, regardless of the presence of TA. Internalization of GO in the gonads was also observed and to some extend in eggs, although in the latter the occurrence of GO signal decreased after the

Dual-functionalized architecture enables stable and tumor cell-specific SiO₂NPs in complex biological fluids

• Iris Renata Sousa Ribeiro,
• Raquel Frenedoso da Silva,
• Romênia Ramos Domingues,
• Adriana Franco Paes Leme and
• Mateus Borba Cardoso

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1238–1252, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.100

• from the tubes and transferred to a 96-well plate. The quantification of hemoglobin in the supernatant and the preparation of positive and negative controls were performed as described above. Folate receptor expression and internalization of SiO2NPs in healthy and tumor cells To verify the folate

• a chemiluminescent solution (Clarity™ Western ECL Substrate – 1705060, Bio-Rad) for 5 min. Antibody to β-actin (AC-15, Novus) was used as an endogenous control for all samples. To assess the internalization of NPs, HaCat and KB cells were cultured in a 96-well plate (1 × 104 cells/well) for 24 h

• (DAPI). After that, samples were analyzed on the Operetta High Content Screening System microscope (PerkinElmer Life Sciences). To obtain quantitative information on the internalization of functionalized and non-functionalized SiO2NPs, the flow cytometry technique was used. HaCat and KB cells were

Realizing active targeting in cancer nanomedicine with ultrasmall nanoparticles

• André F. Lima,
• Giselle Z. Justo and
• Alioscka A. Sousa

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1208–1226, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.98

• primarily occurs via transendothelial transport pathways [6][7]. Regardless of the mode of NP extravasation, active targeting strategies have been widely explored to further enhance NP accumulation in tumors and NP internalization by cancer cells [8][9]. Active targeting involves the modification of NPs

Synthesis, characterization and anticancer effect of doxorubicin-loaded dual stimuli-responsive smart nanopolymers

• Ömür Acet,
• Pavel Kirsanov,
• Burcu Önal Acet,
• Inessa Halets-Bui,
• Dzmitry Shcharbin,
• Şeyda Ceylan Cömert and
• Mehmet Odabaşı

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1189–1196, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.96

• . Physicochemical features such as size, shape, and surface charge play an extremely important role in the internalization of nanostructures. The uptake of nanoparticles into cells requires two steps. The first is the binding to the cell membrane, and the second is the uptake into the cell [34]. The zeta potential

Recent updates in applications of nanomedicine for the treatment of hepatic fibrosis

• Damai Ria Setyawati,
• Fransiska Christydira Sekaringtyas,
• Riyona Desvy Pratiwi,
• A’liyatur Rosyidah,
• Rohimmahtunnissa Azhar,
• Nunik Gustini,
• Gita Syahputra,
• Idah Rosidah,
• Etik Mardliyati,
• Tarwadi and
• Sjaikhurrizal El Muttaqien

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1105–1116, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.89

• effects of TiO2 NPs, with diameters around 20 and 200 nm, and SiO2 NPs on proliferation, fibrosis, adhesion, and migration of LX-2 cells as a model of HSC activation were studied. The results show that the internalization of both TiO2 NPs and SiO2 NPs suppressed classical outcomes of cellular fibrosis

Therapeutic effect of F127-folate@PLGA/CHL/IR780 nanoparticles on folate receptor-expressing cancer cells

• Thi Ngoc Han Pham,
• Phuong-Thao Dang-Luong,
• Hong-Phuc Nguyen,
• Loc Le-Tuan,
• Xuan Thang Cao,
• Thanh-Danh Nguyen,
• Vy Tran Anh and
• Hieu Vu_Quang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 954–964, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.78

• of folic acid did not change the level of the cell signal. F127 also assists in the accumulation of the nanoparticles in the cell via clathrin-mediated endocytosis and caveolae-mediated endocytosis [9][44]. In our study, F127 enhanced the internalization of the nanoparticles in MCF7, HepG2, and HEK

• with the binding of F127 nanoparticles. Clathrin-mediated endocytosis and caveolin-mediated endocytosis occur in most of the cells; therefore, the internalization of the nanoparticles to the cell would be unselective [45]. Thus, there were fluorescent signals in the cells, most of which were incubated

• folate on the surface of nanoparticles promotes the internalization of nanoparticles by cancer cells. Within the cell, the CHL released from the nanoparticles would bind to DNA and halt the development of cancer cells. Without CHL, the nanoparticles had no cytotoxic impact on the cells (data not shown

A review on the structural characterization of nanomaterials for nano-QSAR models

• Salvador Moncho,
• Eva Serrano-Candelas,
• Jesús Vicente de Julián-Ortiz and
• Rafael Gozalbes

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 854–866, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.71

• ]. Additionally, focusing on the role of the NM as contrast agent in magnetic resonance imaging, the authors added the specific property of cellular internalization of iron, measured as the amount of iron inside the cells [25]. Zhang et al. [79] created a predictive model that uses regression trees to predict the