Exploring the potential of polymers: advancements in oral nanocarrier technology

• Rousilândia de Araujo Silva,
• Igor Eduardo Silva Arruda,
• Luise Lopes Chaves,
• Mônica Felts de La Roca Soares and
• Jose Lamartine Soares Sobrinho

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1751–1793, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.122

• weight, as these exhibit a high elastic modulus, creating a deformable matrix that expands pores due to osmotic pressure [57]. This, in turn, influences the elimination, phagocytosis, and biological activity of PNs intended for oral administration. Another factor affecting the polymer’s physicochemical

• -specific drug delivery. In this context, endocytosis is commonly categorized into two types, that is, phagocytosis and pinocytosis, as illustrated in Figure 3A. Phagocytosis involves the uptake of particles larger than 500 nm that bind to specific surface receptors (such as Toll-like, mannose/lectin, and

Ferroptosis induction by engineered liposomes for enhanced tumor therapy

• Alireza Ghasempour,
• Mohammad Amin Tokallou,
• Mohammad Reza Naderi Allaf,
• Mohsen Moradi,
• Hamideh Dehghan,
• Mahsa Sedighi,
• Mohammad-Ali Shahbazi and
• Fahimeh Lavi Arab

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1325–1349, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.97

Better together: biomimetic nanomedicines for high performance tumor therapy

• Imran Shair Mohammad,
• Gizem Kursunluoglu,
• Anup Kumar Patel,
• Hafiz Muhammad Ishaq,
• Cansu Umran Tunc,
• Dilek Kanarya,
• Mubashar Rehman,
• Omer Aydin and
• Yin Lifang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1246–1276, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.92

• . RBC membrane was also conjugated with gold nanostars to control the release with near-infrared irradiation. Also, RBC and platelet hybrid membrane-coated gold nanostars achieved targeted delivery to melanoma cells while avoiding macrophage phagocytosis [129]. Although RBC-camouflage nanomedicines are

Polyurethane/silk fibroin-based electrospun membranes for wound healing and skin substitute applications

• Iqra Zainab,
• Zohra Naseem,
• Syeda Rubab Batool,
• Muhammad Waqas,
• Ahsan Nazir and
• Muhammad Anwaar Nazeer

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 591–612, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.46

• , and cytokines regulate the leucocytes at the injury site. Neutrophils (leucocytes) remove pathogens and necrotic tissues by phagocytosis, antimicrobial peptides, and the release of active oxygen species, proteolytic enzymes, as well as eicosanoids [39]. Excessive and uncontrolled inflammation causes

Nanomaterials in targeting amyloid-β oligomers: current advances and future directions for Alzheimer's disease diagnosis and therapy

• Shiwani Randhawa,
• Trilok Chand Saini,
• Manik Bathla,
• Rahul Bhardwaj,
• Rubina Dhiman and
• Amitabha Acharya

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 561–580, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.44

• receptor activator (XD4). These W20/XD4-SPIONs demonstrated promising results in mitigating the cytotoxicity induced by AβOs and enhancing microglial phagocytosis of these toxic aggregates [57]. Previously, the same NPs were found to show promising early diagnostic potential for AD [58]. Brambilla et al

• eliminate these adverse effects. Multifunctional SPIONs conjugated with W20 and XD4, a class A scavenger receptor activator not only have diagnostic value but also retain the anti-amyloid properties of W20 and XD4, inhibiting amyloid aggregation, reducing cytotoxicity, and enhancing microglial phagocytosis

Synthetic-polymer-assisted antisense oligonucleotide delivery: targeted approaches for precision disease treatment

• Ana Cubillo Alvarez,
• Dylan Maguire and
• Ruairí P. Brannigan

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 435–463, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.34

Radiosensitizing properties of dual-functionalized carbon nanostructures loaded with temozolomide

• Radmila Milenkovska,
• Nikola Geskovski,
• Dushko Shalabalija,
• Ljubica Mihailova,
• Petre Makreski,
• Dushko Lukarski,
• Igor Stojkovski,
• Maja Simonoska Crcarevska and
• Kristina Mladenovska

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 229–251, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.18

• generally via endocytic pathways; particles of several hundred nanometers or less are internalized by micropinocytosis, while the larger particles undergo phagocytosis or do not enter into the cells at all [81]. In the study of Huang et al. [82], GO was taken up by clathrin- (GO with diameter above 100 nm

Nanocarriers and macrophage interaction: from a potential hurdle to an alternative therapeutic strategy

• Naths Grazia Sukubo,
• Paolo Bigini and
• Annalisa Morelli

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 97–118, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.10

• differentiated by circulating monocytes [15]. They act as the first line of defense in tissue by recognizing and engulfing pathogens and cellular debris via phagocytosis. This process is facilitated by detecting pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and the

• macrophages for therapeutic applications, capitalizing on the unique characteristics of these immune cells. Macrophages are highly versatile agents for drug delivery because of their ability to evade immune surveillance, perform phagocytosis, and home to inflamed or diseased tissues [14]. Additionally, their

• expressed on KCs have also been targeted using molecules like phosphatidylserine (PS), which serves as a recognition signal for the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells. In a study by Wang et al., PS-modified lipid carriers loaded with curcumin (Cur–mNLCs) demonstrated improved retention time, bioavailability

Biomimetic nanocarriers: integrating natural functions for advanced therapeutic applications

• Hugo Felix Perini,
• Beatriz Sodré Matos,
• Carlo José Freire de Oliveira and
• Marcos Vinicius da Silva

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1619–1626, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.127

• activity of polylactic glycolic acid (PLGA) nanoparticles coated with membranes, Zhang et al. (2021) tested nanoparticles loaded with gambogic acid and coated with red-blood-cell-derived membranes in colorectal cancer cells. They demonstrated a reduction in phagocytosis, increasing the circulation time of

• homotypic adhesive interactions through selectins, E-cadherins, Thomsen–Friedenreich (TF) antigens, the immunoglobulin superfamily (Ig-SF), and the interaction of SIRP-α with CD47 inhibit the phagocytosis of these cells, thus preventing their capture by dendritic cells [62][65][66]. Nanocarriers associated

• homotypic behavior of CMC-NPs in delivering active therapeutic agents to specific sites, promoting immune evasion of CD47 cells by blocking binding with SIRP-α, preventing its phosphorylation, and thereby restoring the phagocytosis of cancer cells by macrophages. Additional studies have demonstrated that

Realizing active targeting in cancer nanomedicine with ultrasmall nanoparticles

• André F. Lima,
• Giselle Z. Justo and
• Alioscka A. Sousa

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1208–1226, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.98

• that of conventional NPs [66]. This reduced accumulation can be attributed to their efficient renal excretion together with the absence of stable interactions with blood proteins, especially those of the innate immune system that can mark NPs for phagocytosis by tissue-resident macrophages. Overall

Recent updates in applications of nanomedicine for the treatment of hepatic fibrosis

• Damai Ria Setyawati,
• Fransiska Christydira Sekaringtyas,
• Riyona Desvy Pratiwi,
• A’liyatur Rosyidah,
• Rohimmahtunnissa Azhar,
• Nunik Gustini,
• Gita Syahputra,
• Idah Rosidah,
• Etik Mardliyati,
• Tarwadi and
• Sjaikhurrizal El Muttaqien

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1105–1116, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.89

• ]. Phosphatidylserines are anionic phospholipid components of cell membranes, which act as a specific recognition signal for phagocytosis of apoptotic cells by macrophages [60]. Phosphatidylserine modification allows for efficient delivery of active substances to specific sites enriched with macrophages [61]. The

• complexation and cholesterol–polyethylene glycol–vitamin A as a helper lipoid. In the in vitro evaluation, the nanocarrier showed enhanced cellular uptake in HSCs-T6 cells, nine times higher than that in macrophages, displaying specific targeting to HSCs that could avoid phagocytosis by macrophages. These

Interface properties of nanostructured carbon-coated biological implants: an overview

• Mattia Bartoli,
• Francesca Cardano,
• Erik Piatti,
• Stefania Lettieri,
• Andrea Fin and
• Alberto Tagliaferro

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1041–1053, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.85

• onto the surface, forming a matrix composed by platelets and coagulation cascade components. This process triggers the inflammatory response of neutrophils, which attempt to degrade the implant through phagocytosis and the release of reactive oxygen species. Macrophages play a key role changing from

Entry of nanoparticles into cells and tissues: status and challenges

• Kirsten Sandvig,
• Tore Geir Iversen and
• Tore Skotland

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1017–1029, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.83

• involved in macropinocytosis, the CLIC/GEEC (clathrin-independent carrier/glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored protein-enriched endosomal compartments) pathway, as well as in FEME (fast endophilin-mediated endocytosis) and phagocytosis (an uptake mechanism for large particles mostly found in

Nanocarrier systems loaded with IR780, iron oxide nanoparticles and chlorambucil for cancer theragnostics

• Phuong-Thao Dang-Luong,
• Hong-Phuc Nguyen,
• Loc Le-Tuan,
• Xuan-Thang Cao,
• Vy Tran-Anh and
• Hieu Vu Quang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 180–189, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.17

• and target efficacy. To increase the blood half-life, stealth materials have been attached to the nanoparticle surface to prevent protein adsorption and immune cell phagocytosis [4]. Most sheath materials are hydrophilic polymers such as poly(vinyl alcohol), poly(ethylene glycol), and poly(ethylene

Curcumin-loaded nanostructured systems for treatment of leishmaniasis: a review

• Douglas Dourado,
• Thayse Silva Medeiros,
• Éverton do Nascimento Alencar,
• Edijane Matos Sales and
• Fábio Rocha Formiga

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 37–50, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.4

• these carriers with the macrophage membrane. As a result, the macrophages uptake the drug-loaded nanocarrier by phagocytosis, where they will directly act on the parasites [65][66][67]. Several types of nanosystems have been studied for carrying antileishmanial drugs, such as polymeric nanoparticles

• observe a general decrease in IC50 when compared to free curc, which was mainly attributed to the cell uptake of these structures. Indeed, studies that functionalized nanostructures with mannose for an increase in macrophage phagocytosis evidenced that functionalized nanoparticles decreased IC50 when

Curcumin-loaded albumin submicron particles with potential as a cancer therapy: an in vitro study

• Nittiya Suwannasom,
• Netsai Sriaksorn,
• Chutamas Thepmalee,
• Krissana Khoothiam,
• Ausanai Prapan,
• Hans Bäumler and
• Chonthida Thephinlap

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2023, 14, 1127–1140, doi:10.3762/bjnano.14.93

• cancer cells, likely attributed to particle uptake through endocytosis pathways, including phagocytosis and macropinocytosis [51]. The uptake process depends on cell membrane and particle properties, including size, shape, composition, and surface properties. These factors play a crucial role in particle

Recognition mechanisms of hemoglobin particles by monocytes – CD163 may just be one

• Jonathan-Gabriel Nimz,
• Pichayut Rerkshanandana,
• Chiraphat Kloypan,
• Ulrich Kalus,
• Saranya Chaiwaree,
• Axel Pruß,
• Radostina Georgieva,
• Yu Xiong and
• Hans Bäumler

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2023, 14, 1028–1040, doi:10.3762/bjnano.14.85

• shown in various studies to have a direct affinity for Hb in the absence of Hp. Thus, it seems reasonable that CD163 could possibly also bind Hb within HBOCs and cause phagocytosis of the particles. In this work we investigated the role of CD163 in the uptake of our hemoglobin sub-micron particles

• (HbMPs) in monocytes and additionally screened for alternative ways of particle recognition by monocytes. In our experiments, blockade of CD163 by specific monoclonal antibodies proved to partly inhibit HbMP uptake by monocytes. It appears, however, that several other phagocytosis pathways for HbMPs

• might exist, independent of CD163 and also Hb. Keywords: CD163; HBOC; hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers; monocytes; phagocytosis; Introduction Blood transfusions save lives every day and have become an indispensable part of clinical practice in modern medicine. However, there have always been numerous

Recent progress in cancer cell membrane-based nanoparticles for biomedical applications

• Qixiong Lin,
• Yueyou Peng,
• Yanyan Wen,
• Xiaoqiong Li,
• Donglian Du,
• Weibin Dai,
• Wei Tian and
• Yanfeng Meng

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2023, 14, 262–279, doi:10.3762/bjnano.14.24

• system (RES) or the mononuclear phagocytosis system (MPS) [4]. The subsequent rapid clearance from blood circulation by the liver and kidneys results in insufficient drug accumulation in the target tissue [5]. In addition, NPs can interact with proteins to form a protein corona, which affects the

• ). It also counteracts immune clearance by interacting with Ig-like lectin 10 (Siglec-10) expressed by macrophages [43]. Moreover, PD-L1 and B2M play an important role in preventing macrophage phagocytosis [43]. Most of the protein components can be efficiently retained and transferred to NPs during the

• encapsulation of cancer cell membranes (Figure 4A) [31]. With these features, although NPs encapsulated by a cancer cell membrane are foreign substances, they can still escape the surveillance of the body, thereby resisting phagocytosis by macrophages and prolonging the blood circulation time [20]. The

Bacterial safety study of the production process of hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers

• Axel Steffen,
• Yu Xiong,
• Radostina Georgieva,
• Ulrich Kalus and
• Hans Bäumler

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2022, 13, 114–126, doi:10.3762/bjnano.13.8

• higher phagocytosis rate of HbMP and led to an increased amount of methemoglobin [51]. Effect of EDTA on bacterial growth E. coli (Figure 4A) and S. epidermidis (Figure 4B) were cultivated in growth medium containing 0.2 M of EDTA at 37 °C. In contrast to the experiments in which glutaraldehyde was added

Use of nanosystems to improve the anticancer effects of curcumin

• Andrea M. Araya-Sibaja,
• Norma J. Salazar-López,
• Krissia Wilhelm Romero,
• José R. Vega-Baudrit,
• J. Abraham Domínguez-Avila,
• Carlos A. Velázquez Contreras,
• Ramón E. Robles-Zepeda,
• Mirtha Navarro-Hoyos and
• Gustavo A. González-Aguilar

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 1047–1062, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.78

• associated with smaller sizes and possible internalization by endocytosis (particles with sizes <150 nm can be internalized by clathrin- or caveolin-mediated endocytosis), while particles with sizes from 250 nm to 3 µm can be internalized by macropinocytosis and phagocytosis. Lipid–polymer hybrid

The role of deep eutectic solvents and carrageenan in synthesizing biocompatible anisotropic metal nanoparticles

• Nabojit Das,
• Akash Kumar and
• Raja Gopal Rayavarapu

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 924–938, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.69

• and phagocytosis and ultimately leads to prolonged blood circulation with enhanced retention and permeability of the nanorods. Apart from PEGylation, phosphatidylcholine has also been used as a coating agent for reducing the toxicity of CTAB-capped gold nanorods [64]. In vivo toxicity of anisotropic

Comprehensive review on ultrasound-responsive theranostic nanomaterials: mechanisms, structures and medical applications

• Sepand Tehrani Fateh,
• Lida Moradi,
• Elmira Kohan,
• Michael R. Hamblin and
• Amin Shiralizadeh Dezfuli

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 808–862, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.64

Fate and transformation of silver nanoparticles in different biological conditions

• Barbara Pem,
• Marija Ćurlin,
• Darija Domazet Jurašin,
• Valerije Vrček,
• Rinea Barbir,
• Vedran Micek,
• Raluca M. Fratila,
• Jesus M. de la Fuente and
• Ivana Vinković Vrček

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 665–679, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.53

• cells, being internalized through phagocytosis or pinocytosis and metabolised in lysosomes [11][26]. AgNPs will again dissolve in lysosomes due to their low pH and may be then released into the cytosol [38]. In short, the fate of AgNPs in the human body is extremely complex; however, many chemical

The impact of molecular tumor profiling on the design strategies for targeting myeloid leukemia and EGFR/CD44-positive solid tumors

• Nikola Geskovski,
• Nadica Matevska-Geshkovska,
• Simona Dimchevska Sazdovska,
• Marija Glavas Dodov,
• Kristina Mladenovska and
• Katerina Goracinova

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 375–401, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.31

• sinusoidal endothelial cells of rabbit BM [23]. Even though the authors eliminated the possibility of a BM distribution mediated through macrophage phagocytosis, the exact mechanism of localization remained unknown. Moreover, the poloxamer-coated polystyrene beads circulated in the blood for up to eight days

• adsorbs onto the surface of poloxamer 407-coated colloidal particles, thus exhibiting microdomains that are specific for the sinusoidal BM endothelium. Another mechanism of BM targeting is the phagocytosis-mediated uptake from the perisinusoidal macrophages. It is known that the perisinusoidal BM

• confirmed that the BM uptake mechanism relies on phagocytosis-mediated lipid transport. In fact, when administered in higher doses or along with other specific lipids, the BM macrophages get saturated such that the phagocytosis rate drops resulting in a cessation of BM transport of the liposomes [29]. Tardi

Characterization, bio-uptake and toxicity of polymer-coated silver nanoparticles and their interaction with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells

• Sahar Pourhoseini,
• Reilly T. Enos,
• Angela E. Murphy,
• Bo Cai and
• Jamie R. Lead

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 282–294, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.23

• the effect of cell type and the kinetics of cellular uptake or sorption [40]. Human PBMCs primarily consist of monocytes and lymphocytes (mostly T cells). Monocytes are known for their phagocytic properties and phagocytosis is suggested as one of the possible mechanisms for Ag uptake by cells [7]. As