Focused ion and electron beams for synthesis and characterization of nanomaterials

• Aleksandra Szkudlarek

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 613–616, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.47

• Induced Processing) communities during the Focused Charged Particle Week held in Krakow in 2022. Over the past decade, following the publication of the comprehensive book edited by Ivo Utke, Stanislav Moshkalev, and Philip Russell on the fundamentals and applications of focused electron and ion beams [3

• unrivaled spatial resolution and 3D capabilities, focused ion and electron beams technologies face challenges in reproducibility and scalability, hindering their commercial applications. Hence, these techniques require better understanding of the atomistic mechanisms involving ions, electrons, adsorbates

Polyurethane/silk fibroin-based electrospun membranes for wound healing and skin substitute applications

• Iqra Zainab,
• Zohra Naseem,
• Syeda Rubab Batool,
• Muhammad Waqas,
• Ahsan Nazir and
• Muhammad Anwaar Nazeer

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 591–612, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.46

• 37610, Pakistan 10.3762/bjnano.16.46 Abstract The importance of electrospun membranes for biomedical applications has increased, especially when it comes to skin regeneration and wound healing. This review presents the production and applications of electrospun membranes based on polyurethane (PU) and

• silk fibroin (SF) and highlights their benefits as a skin substitute. This review also highlights the electrospinning technique used to prepare nanofibers for these biomedical applications. Silk, well-known for its excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability, structural properties, and low immunogenic

• response, is extensively investigated by addressing its molecular structure, composition, and medical uses. PU is a candidate for potential biomedical applications because of its strength, flexibility, biocompatibility, cell-adhesive properties, and high resistance to biodegradation. PU combined with silk

Feasibility analysis of carbon nanofiber synthesis and morphology control using a LPG premixed flame

• Iftikhar Rahman Bishal,
• Muhammad Hilmi Ibrahim,
• Norikhwan Hamzah,
• Mohd Zamri Mohd Yusop,
• Faizuan Bin Abdullah,
• I Putu Tedy Indrayana and
• Mohd Fairus Mohd Yasin

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 581–590, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.45

• nucleation rate, which in turn increases the catalyst particle size and the amount of free carbon atoms, producing CNFs with larger diameters and amorphous carbon. According to Raman analysis, the grown CNFs have a high number of defects, which may be good for applications where defective nanomaterials are

• desirable to improve the component performance. The work has proven that flame synthesis of CNFs using commercial LPG is feasible, paving the way for further exploration into cost-efficient CNF production with potential industrial applications. Keywords: carbon nanofiber (CNF); equivalence ratio; flame

• synthesis; liquefied petroleum gas (LPG); nanomaterial synthesis; Introduction Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and carbon nanofibers (CNFs) have gained significant interest because of their distinctive properties and their wide range of applications in nanotechnology [1][2][3]. CNTs are a modified version of CNFs

Nanomaterials in targeting amyloid-β oligomers: current advances and future directions for Alzheimer's disease diagnosis and therapy

• Shiwani Randhawa,
• Trilok Chand Saini,
• Manik Bathla,
• Rahul Bhardwaj,
• Rubina Dhiman and
• Amitabha Acharya

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 561–580, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.44

• MNSs was further modified with oligomer-specific antibodies, creating a stable nanobioconjugate for both in vitro and in vivo applications. The MNSs could detect toxic AβOs present on nerve cell surfaces in vitro, demonstrating their specificity and effectiveness. Additionally, upon intranasal delivery

• manage NDs such as Alzheimer’s. In this review, we systematically categorize NPs used for the diagnosis and inhibition of AβOs based on their composition and functionalization. This bifurcation allows for a clearer understanding of the diverse mechanisms and applications of NPs in addressing AD. We have

• physicochemical properties, diverse structural forms, and potential applications in combating NDs. The unique characteristics of CNMs, including their hydrophobic surfaces and variable dimensions, enable them to interact effectively with biomolecules, making them valuable tools in biomedical research and

Retrieval of B1 phase from high-pressure B2 phase for CdO nanoparticles by electronic excitations in Cd_xZn_1−xO composite thin films

• Arkaprava Das,
• Marcin Zając and
• Carla Bittencourt

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 551–560, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.43

• electron mobility (>100 cm2/V/s) and high electrical conductivity (>1014 S/cm), demonstrating its potential for optoelectronic applications [2][3][4]. The incorporation of cadmium into ZnO effectively reduces the bandgap, rendering the thin films suitable for applications in the visible region of the

• electromagnetic spectrum [5]. Composite semiconducting thin films have garnered significant attention as their bandgap can be lowered without compromising mobility and conductivity. Beyond optoelectronic applications, CdO–ZnO-based alloys are also employed in gas-sensing technologies [6]. In prior investigations

• , we reported a local pressure-driven structural phase transformation (PT) from B1 (NaCl) to B2 (CsCl) in CdxZn1−xO (x = 0.4) composite binary oxide thin films [1]. The radiation stability of these phases is crucial for optoelectronic applications in space, where the exposure to high-energy particles

Functionalized gold nanoflowers on carbon screen-printed electrodes: an electrochemical platform for biosensing hemagglutinin protein of influenza A H1N1 virus

• Carlos Enrique Torres-Méndez,
• Sharmilee Nandi,
• Klara Martinovic,
• Patrizia Kühne,
• Yifan Liu,
• Sam Taylor,
• Maria Lysandrou,
• Maria Ines Berrojo Romeyro Mascarenhas,
• Viktoria Langwallner,
• Javier Enrique Sebastián Alonso,
• Ivana Jovanovic,
• Maike Lüftner,
• Georgia-Vasiliki Gkountana,
• David Bern,
• Abdul-Raouf Atif,
• Ehsan Manouchehri Doulabi,
• Gemma Mestres and
• Masood Kamali-Moghaddam

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 540–550, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.42

• measuring the AuNFs in the micrograph presented in Figure 2c, a total of 540 AuNFs were identified and measured with the open-source ImageJ software [59]. Microfluidics system A microfluidics device (Figure 9) was designed to use the biosensor in point-of-care applications. This system was coupled to a

• applications, the dimensions are in millimeters, and a photograph of the entire device is shown. Comparison of the designed electrochemical biosensor to other systems from the literature that target influenza A H1N1 virus. Supporting Information Supporting Information File 38: Additional experimental details

Electron beam-based direct writing of nanostructures using a palladium β-ketoesterate complex

• Chinmai Sai Jureddy,
• Krzysztof Maćkosz,
• Aleksandra Butrymowicz-Kubiak,
• Iwona B. Szymańska,
• Patrik Hoffmann and
• Ivo Utke

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 530–539, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.41

• tool offers many advantages in making nanostructures with complex shapes and novel compositions for evolving nanotechnological applications. In this work, structures were nanoprinted using a fluorine-free β-ketoesterate complex, bis(tert-butylacetoacetate)palladium(II), [Pd(tbaoac)2]. The internal

• use of masks, achieving scales down to a few nanometers with various patterns and shapes, offers significant advantages for a wide range of technological applications. These include areas that require plasmonic [1][2][3], phononic [3][4], magnetic [5][6], optoelectronic [7][8][9], and mechanical [10

• spectrum of electron energies, including secondary electrons (SEs) and backscattered electrons (BSEs). This has a significant impact on the resulting composition, which depends on the specific precursor used. To produce pure metal structures, new precursors are being explored for FEBID applications. In

Zeolite materials with Ni and Co: synthesis and catalytic potential in the selective hydrogenation of citral

• Inocente Rodríguez-Iznaga,
• Yailen Costa Marrero,
• Tania Farias Piñeira,
• Céline Fontaine,
• Lexane Paget,
• Beatriz Concepción Rosabal,
• Arbelio Penton Madrigal,
• Vitalii Petranovskii and
• Gwendoline Lafaye

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 520–529, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.40

• metallic species for various applications, leading to the invention of new functional materials for sustainable development, such as catalysts [1][2][3]. Among the various methods used to modify zeolites, ion exchange is the most widely employed. Different ion exchange methods are known, such as ion

Water in nanoporous hexagonal boron nitride nanosheets: a first-principles study

• Juliana A. Gonçalves,
• Ronaldo J. C. Batista and
• Marcia C. Barbosa

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 510–519, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.39

• Cruzeiro, 35400-000, Ouro Preto, MG, Brazil 10.3762/bjnano.16.39 Abstract Nanoporous membranes are being explored as efficient materials for water filtration and desalination applications. In this study, we analyzed the behavior of pores within a freestanding hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) monolayer in

N₂⁺-implantation-induced tailoring of structural, morphological, optical, and electrical characteristics of sputtered molybdenum thin films

• Usha Rani,
• Kafi Devi,
• Divya Gupta and
• Sanjeev Aggarwal

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 495–509, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.38

• Usha Rani Kafi Devi Divya Gupta Sanjeev Aggarwal Ion Beam Centre, Department of Physics, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra-136119, India 10.3762/bjnano.16.38 Abstract Molybdenum (Mo) thin films have extensive applications in energy storage devices and photovoltaic solar cells because of their

• technological applications owing to their outstanding characteristics. The high melting point and stability of molybdenum ensure that it remains structurally intact under the harsh operating conditions of solar cells [1][2]. This stability is essential for long-term reliability and performance. The low

• material characteristics. Ion implantation is one of the most attractive techniques because it introduces considerable changes in the surface morphology and composition of the films [13][14]. The uses of implanted Mo thin films cover a broad range of applications including microelectronics and

Performance optimization of a microwave-coupled plasma-based ultralow-energy ECR ion source for silicon nanostructuring

• Joy Mukherjee,
• Safiul Alam Mollick,
• Tanmoy Basu and
• Tapobrata Som

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 484–494, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.37

• pre- and post-bombardment changes in optical properties, resulting from nanopatterned surfaces, are investigated using UV–vis reflectivity measurements and correlated with the dimensions of the nanopatterns. This manuscript highlights the potential applications arising from these findings, emphasizing

• applications and play a crucial role in generating charged particles. Various systems harness energetic ions for diverse purposes, spanning material science, high-energy physics, medical applications, and agricultural science [1][2][3][4][5]. Presently, energetic ions find application in various surface

• nanopatterning and nanoscale functionalization have garnered significant interest, owing to their broad applications in DNA origami [10], tuning of wettability [11] and electrical and magnetic anisotropy [12][13], isolated dot formation [1], nanoscale plasmonic arrays [14], and field emission [15]. Thus, ion

Impact of adsorbate–substrate interaction on nanostructured thin films growth during low-pressure condensation

• Alina V. Dvornichenko,
• Vasyl O. Kharchenko and
• Dmitrii O. Kharchenko

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 473–483, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.36

• ], sensors [5], and catalysts [6][7][8]. Nanostructured thin films grown via low-pressure deposition methods have garnered significant attention because of their diverse applications in electronics, optics, catalysis, and sensors [9]. The ability to precisely control properties such as morphology

• , crystallinity, and surface chemistry of the films is crucial for optimizing performance in these applications. In adsorption–desorption processes, where materials are deposited from the gas phase, experimental techniques enable the study the formation of clusters or islands of adsorbed molecules/atoms, which

Effect of additives on the synthesis efficiency of nanoparticles by laser-induced reduction

• Rikuto Kuroda,
• Takahiro Nakamura,
• Hideki Ina and
• Shuhei Shibata

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 464–472, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.35

• applications. Keywords: laser-induced reduction; laser synthesis and processing of colloidal nanoparticles; production efficiency; Introduction Metal nanoparticles exhibit unique chemical, physical and optical properties that are not found in their bulk materials, and are used in a variety of fields

• trap oxidizing species such as hydroxyl radicals since it has more reaction points than monovalent alcohols. When considering industrial applications, optimization using additives is essential not only in terms of the efficiency of nanoparticle synthesis but also cost, by-products, and solvent

Synthetic-polymer-assisted antisense oligonucleotide delivery: targeted approaches for precision disease treatment

• Ana Cubillo Alvarez,
• Dylan Maguire and
• Ruairí P. Brannigan

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 435–463, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.34

• effective complexation with ASOs and enhanced cellular uptake. Additionally, while these high-generation DPLs exhibited moderate cytotoxicity, complexation with ASOs was shown to reduce toxicity, making them a promising vehicle for gene therapy applications. Confocal microscopy further confirmed the ability

• cell viability, demonstrating its potential for therapeutic applications in dermatology. More recently, Taniguchi et al. explored the use of PLO as a key component in a novel drug delivery system designed for the treatment of advanced breast and pancreatic cancers [90]. The researchers developed a

• its characteristic amphipathic guanidinium group, PLR has been frequently used in biomedical applications, particularly as a carrier for nucleic acid delivery [91]. Moreover, its strong cationic nature allows it to effectively bind to negatively charged molecules, facilitating cellular uptake through

Quantification of lead through rod-shaped silver-doped zinc oxide nanoparticles using an electrochemical approach

• Ravinder Lamba,
• Gaurav Bhanjana,
• Neeraj Dilbaghi,
• Vivek Gupta and
• Sandeep Kumar

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 422–434, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.33

• lead sensor had a high sensitivity of 16 µA·ppm−1·cm−2, along with a detection limit of 3 ppm. Additionally, it demonstrated a response time of less than 2 s. This sensor is most suitable for applications that necessitate cost-effectiveness, rapid readings, and data collection in the field or at the

Biomimetics and bioinspired surfaces: from nature to theory and applications

• Rhainer Guillermo Ferreira,
• Thies H. Büscher,
• Manuela Rebora,
• Poramate Manoonpong,
• Zhendong Dai and
• Stanislav N. Gorb

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 418–421, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.32

• influence their performance and at drawing inspiration for modern technology from the vast array of solutions found in nature [1]. By examining the multiscale structures and mechanisms in biological systems, innovative and technologically advanced solutions can be developed for practical applications

• of studies that form this thematic issue. The thematic issue "Biomimetics and Bioinspired Surfaces: From Nature to Theory and Applications" is composed of nine articles that not only show the possibilities of analyzing natural phenomena in detail, but also empirical applications of bioinspired

• ) approach. For instance, Bartoli et al. [8] reviewed the potential applications of nanostructured carbon coatings – such as nanodiamonds, carbon nanotubes, and graphene-based materials – to improve interaction on the interface between medical implants and living cells. Several biological materials exhibit

Size control of nanoparticles synthesized by pulsed laser ablation in liquids using donut-shaped beams

• Abdel Rahman Altakroury,
• Oleksandr Gatsa,
• Farbod Riahi,
• Zongwen Fu,
• Miroslava Flimelová,
• Andrei Samokhvalov,
• Stephan Barcikowski,
• Carlos Doñate-Buendía,
• Alexander V. Bulgakov and
• Bilal Gökce

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 407–417, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.31

• nanoparticles (NPs) with defined particle sizes and narrow size distribution width is driven by the growing integration of nanomaterials into various industrial applications, such as medicine [1][2][3], catalysis [4][5], sensors [6][7], and additive manufacturing [8]. The performance of NPs typically depends on

• the size, requiring a monodisperse or at least monomodal size distribution. As an example, gold NPs with a narrow particle size distribution achieve a higher detection sensitivity in sensing applications [9]. Besides, NP size is critical for biomedical applications, where deviations from the optimum

• beams of controlled polarization was performed to produce nanoparticles from metal (gold), oxide (yttrium oxide, Y2O3), and alloy (high-entropy alloy (HEA)) targets. The selected materials are typical representatives of their classes, whose NPs are widely used in applications such as biology and

ReactorAFM/STM – dynamic reactions on surfaces at elevated temperature and atmospheric pressure

• Tycho Roorda,
• Hamed Achour,
• Matthijs A. van Spronsen,
• Marta E. Cañas-Ventura,
• Sander B. Roobol,
• Willem Onderwaater,
• Mirthe Bergman,
• Peter van der Tuijn,
• Gertjan van Baarle,
• Johan W. Bakker,
• Joost W. M. Frenken and
• Irene M. N. Groot

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 397–406, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.30

• conductive substrate limits STM techniques in relevant industrial applications involving such more complex catalysts. For this reason, an atomic force microscopy (AFM) version of the high-pressure STM employing a quartz tuning fork (QTF) was introduced to overcome this limitation [16]. Unlike STM, which uses

Engineered PEG–PCL nanoparticles enable sensitive and selective detection of sodium dodecyl sulfate: a qualitative and quantitative analysis

• Soni Prajapati and
• Ranjana Singh

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 385–396, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.29

• Soni Prajapati Ranjana Singh Department of Biochemistry, King George’s Medical University, Lucknow, India 10.3762/bjnano.16.29 Abstract Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) is a widely used anionic surfactant in laboratory, household, and industrial applications, which ultimately enters the environment

• sulfate group, with sodium as the counter-ion. The amphiphilic structure of SDS, integrating a hydrophobic alkyl chain and a hydrophilic headgroup, confers unique physicochemical properties that are leveraged in various applications. However, the widespread use of SDS in different applications led to the

• different applications [11]. The application of nanoparticles depends on the amount of capping agent adsorbed on the surface of the nanoparticles [12]. This suggests that quantifying the amount of surface capping, such as SDS, is necessary for designing nanoparticle-based applications. The food industry has

Development of a mucoadhesive drug delivery system and its interaction with gastric cells

• Ahmet Baki Sahin,
• Serdar Karakurt and
• Deniz Sezlev Bilecen

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 371–384, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.28

• leakage of encapsulated drugs. These drawbacks make alginate challenging to be used in drug delivery applications [11][12]. Therefore, it is generally used together with other polymers, such as chitosan [13] or carboxymethyl cellulose [14], or it is modified with PEG-maleimide [15] to acquire mucoadhesion

• of the mucoid surface [17]. Eudragit RS100 polymer has been used for several applications aimed at different sites of the body such as skin [18], intestinal [16], intranasal [19], or ocular [20] drug delivery. This broad range of application sites is possible because pH-independent swelling of the

• , there are few studies focusing on this property when they are used as nanoparticle formulations [17]. Over the years, several valuable alginate-based applications have been reported as gastroretentive drug delivery systems, in which alginate beads were either coated with aminated chitosan [24], or

Pulsed laser in liquid grafting of gold nanoparticle–carbon support composites

• Madeleine K. Wilsey,
• Teona Taseska,
• Qishen Lyu,
• Connor P. Cox and
• Astrid M. Müller

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 349–361, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.26

• nanosecond laser pulses for more efficient and less damaging surface decontamination compared to shorter pulses [42]. Besides, picosecond or femtosecond pulses are more expensive, creating obstacles for future scaled up composite manufacturing applications. The gold nanoparticles were uniformly distributed

• , integrated with laser-induced seeding on pulsed laser decontaminated/activated support surfaces and followed by laser-enabled nanoparticle growth, provides universality and simplicity. As a result, pulsed laser grafting has broad applications in sustainable manufacturing, decarbonization technologies

• , catalysis, sensing, and biomedical fields. Conclusion Pulsed laser grafting of gold nanoparticle–carbon fiber paper composites presents a significant advancement in electrode design for electrocatalytic applications. Our novel one-step aqueous pulsed laser grafting process enables the fabrication of

Tailoring of physical properties of RF-sputtered ZnTe films: role of substrate temperature

• Kafi Devi,
• Usha Rani,
• Arun Kumar,
• Divya Gupta and
• Sanjeev Aggarwal

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 333–348, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.25

• crystallinity, high transmittance, and high conductivity of the ZnTe film produced at 600 °C make it a suitable candidate for use as a buffer layer in solar cell applications. Keywords: bandgap; physical properties; RF sputtering; substrate temperature; ZnTe; Introduction The industrialization and burning of

• ) compounds have numerous applications in optoelectronic devices such as light-emitting diodes [1], display devices [2], infrared detectors [3], and terahertz emitters [4]. Owing to their suitable physical properties (deposition at low temperatures and good thermal stability) and unique optical properties due

• very rare. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out a detailed study in this regard and to find out the optimum parameters for film deposition for applications in optoelectronic devices. Recently we reported the impact of substrate temperature on the structure, morphology, and reflectance behaviour of

Fabrication and evaluation of BerNPs regarding the growth and development of Streptococcus mutans

• Tuyen Huu Nguyen,
• Hong Thanh Pham,
• Kieu Kim Thanh Nguyen,
• Loan Hong Ngo,
• Anh Ngoc Tuan Mai,
• Thu Hoang Anh Lam,
• Ngan Thi Kim Phan,
• Dung Tien Pham,
• Duong Thuy Hoang,
• Thuc Dong Nguyen and
• Lien Thi Xuan Truong

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 308–315, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.23

• prepared using a wet-milling method with zirconium balls to enhance bioavailability and expand potential applications. The particle size and physicochemical properties of the BerNPs were analyzed using field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), UV–vis spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, and Fourier

• ranging from 12.5 to 25.0 µg/mL [31]. However, there is limited research on the activity of BerNPs against S. mutans, a primary pathogen responsible for dental caries. This study aims to provide additional information on the potential and applications of BerNPs in the development of oral care products

Enhancing mechanical properties of chitosan/PVA electrospun nanofibers: a comprehensive review

• Nur Areisman Mohd Salleh,
• Amalina Muhammad Afifi,
• Fathiah Mohamed Zuki and
• Hanna Sofia SalehHudin

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 286–307, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.22

• industrial applications. It begins by outlining the fundamental properties of chitosan and PVA, highlighting their compatibility and mechanical characteristics. The electrospinning process is discussed, focusing on how various parameters and post-treatment methods influence fiber formation and performance

• evaluate mechanical properties and provides a comparative analysis of different enhancement approaches. Applications in biomedical and industrial contexts are explored, showcasing the versatility and innovation potential of these nanofibers. Finally, current challenges are addressed, and future research

• directions are proposed to overcome these obstacles and further enhance the mechanical properties of chitosan/PVA electrospun nanofibers, guiding their development for practical applications. Keywords: biomaterials; chitosan; electrospun nanofiber; mechanical properties; polyvinyl alcohol; Introduction In

Emerging strategies in the sustainable removal of antibiotics using semiconductor-based photocatalysts

• Yunus Ahmed,
• Keya Rani Dutta,
• Parul Akhtar,
• Md. Arif Hossen,
• Md. Jahangir Alam,
• Obaid A. Alharbi,
• Hamad AlMohamadi and
• Abdul Wahab Mohammad

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 264–285, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.21

• contaminants, making it a versatile option for environmental remediation across various water and air treatment applications. These features collectively make photocatalysis an attractive approach for addressing pollution challenges in diverse settings. In recent years, several significant review papers have

• mechanisms of how these materials or processes degrade antibiotics. They do not address the entry of antibiotics into the environment, their adverse impact on human health and the environment, or the effects of each treatment process in relation to established industrial applications. As a result, there is a

• more complicated to fabricate and possibly beset by stability problems due to mediator degradation, indirect Z-schemes are nevertheless often used in applications that demand high charge separation performance. In contrast, direct Z-schemes are best suited for systems where robustness and simplicity