Engineering of oriented carbon nanotubes in composite materials

• Razieh Beigmoradi,
• Abdolreza Samimi and
• Davod Mohebbi-Kalhori

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 415–435, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.41

• CNT fibers are fabricated by drawing an aerogel of CNTs from the gas phase during growth [44]. The drawing orients the CNT bundles and can be combined with other techniques to fabricate diverse composites. The experimental works indicate the ability of the method to produce continuous CNT fibers with

Electron interaction with copper(II) carboxylate compounds

• Michal Lacko,
• Peter Papp,
• Iwona B. Szymańska,
• Edward Szłyk and
• Štefan Matejčík

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 384–398, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.38

• electron ionization (EI), dissociative ionization (DI) [17][18][19] processes. Their kinetic energy is only a few eV, with energy distribution determined by the type of wafer and energy of primary beam [20][21]. Thorman et al. have compared gas phase and surface data on low energy electron interactions

• experiments using cisplatin [Pt(NH3)2Cl2] as precursor [31]. These latter experiments were motivated by gas phase DEA studies on this compound showing also that it can be evaporated intact [32]. Electron impact MS spectra analysis of [Cu(O2CR)2] (R = CnH2n−1, n = 1–3; CF3, CHF2, C6H5, p-F-C6H4, p-Cl-C6H4, o

• -Cl-C6H4, C6F5) [33] and [Cu2(t-BuNH2)2(µ-O2CR)4] (R = CnF2n−1, n = 1–6) [34] investigated previously suggested that copper(II) easily changes its oxidation state to Cu(I) in the gas phase and the highest intensity was observed for the fragment Cu2(O2CR)+. On the other hand, copper(I) compounds

BN/Ag hybrid nanomaterials with petal-like surfaces as catalysts and antibacterial agents

• Konstantin L. Firestein,
• Denis V. Leybo,
• Alexander E. Steinman,
• Andrey M. Kovalskii,
• Andrei T. Matveev,
• Anton M. Manakhov,
• Irina V. Sukhorukova,
• Pavel V. Slukin,
• Nadezda K. Fursova,
• Sergey G. Ignatov,
• Dmitri V. Golberg and
• Dmitry V. Shtansky

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 250–261, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.27

• p-nitrophenol reduction to p-aminophenol, i.e., for liquid phase reaction [12][13][14], we utilized the 3D BN/Ag HNMs for the methanol oxidation reaction, i.e., for the gas phase reaction. In the latter case, the usage of 3D BN NPs appears to be preferential because of higher specific surface area

Gas-assisted silver deposition with a focused electron beam

• Luisa Berger,
• Katarzyna Madajska,
• Iwona B. Szymanska,
• Katja Höflich,
• Mikhail N. Polyakov,
• Jakub Jurczyk,
• Carlos Guerra-Nuñez and
• Ivo Utke

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 224–232, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.24

• precursor for gas phase FEBID was reported [13]. Silver FEBID was also realized in an encapsulated liquid phase [14]. Although resulting in pure silver with 50 nm sized dots, this technique comes with challenges such as the mandatory membrane substrate for keeping the liquid container tight, yet accessible

• )/synthesized = 242−244 °C/247 °C). Previous measurements indicated thermal stability of the precursor in the gas phase up to 220 °C [18]. Upon electron irradiation of the pristine solid precursor compound, a strong increase in silver content from 9 to >40 atom % was observed. Thermal stability and electron

• shown that fragments of the intact molecule in the gas phase are detected in significant amounts up to 220 °C [18] so that decomposition at 160 °C seems to be unlikely, there might be a thermal deposition mechanism for this substrate temperature. Further investigations have to show how this competing

Bombyx mori silk/titania/gold hybrid materials for photocatalytic water splitting: combining renewable raw materials with clean fuels

• Stefanie Krüger,
• Michael Schwarze,
• Otto Baumann,
• Christina Günter,
• Michael Bruns,
• Christian Kübel,
• Dorothée Vinga Szabó,
• Rafael Meinusch,
• Verónica de Zea Bermudez and
• Andreas Taubert

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 187–204, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.21

• distance of 10 cm. After reaction (usually 24 h), a sample of the gas phase was analyzed in a gas chromatograph equipped with a Carboxen column (Agilent Technologies 7890A GC System with a jasUNIS Injector System) to determine the amount of H2. Results Two types of materials were made. The first group only

Electron-driven and thermal chemistry during water-assisted purification of platinum nanomaterials generated by electron beam induced deposition

• Ziyan Warneke,
• Markus Rohdenburg,
• Jonas Warneke,
• Janina Kopyra and
• Petra Swiderek

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 77–90, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.10

• from the precursor is not a relevant reaction in the electron-induced degradation of MeCpPtMe3 layers. In addition, the m/z 39 trace gives evidence that ESD of the precursor is negligible. According to previous gas phase experiments [21], the dominant fragmentation proceeding via dissociative electron

• present and previous [10] surface studies, precursor fragmentation is driven by electron impact ionization (EI). In this regime, loss of CH4 from the precursors has in fact been observed in gas phase mass spectrometry [11][20]. Nonetheless, the abundances of specific fragment ions observed in the positive

• the precursor layer may provide a more convincing explanation for the lack of CH3 in ESD. Such an effect was observed previously in the case of acetylacetone where gas-phase experiments demonstrated that electron-induced loss of CH3 is significant in the monomers but is completely suppressed in the

Response under low-energy electron irradiation of a thin film of a potential copper precursor for focused electron beam induced deposition (FEBID)

• Leo Sala,
• Iwona B. Szymańska,
• Céline Dablemont,
• Anne Lafosse and
• Lionel Amiaud

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 57–65, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.8

• should be not only in the gas phase, but also it needs to be deposited on the surface where the electron beam is focused. The main motivation of the present study is to get insights on the response of this precursor under FEBID conditions, i.e., under electron irradiation in vacuum. We separate here the

• difficult to determine from the data. To our knowledge, no measurement of amine metal cation complex dissociation is described in literature for comparison, and the resonances for dissociative electron attachment in amine compounds, known from gas-phase studies [23][24][25][26], are expected to be shifted

• in energy and to have enlarged widths in condensed phase [27]. One cannot go further in the attribution based only on our measurements and the results of gas-phase studies. Nevertheless, the release of the ethylamine compound is favourable to the use of the compound as a precursor for FEBID. It

The rational design of a Au(I) precursor for focused electron beam induced deposition

• Ali Marashdeh,
• Thiadrik Tiesma,
• Niels J. C. van Velzen,
• Sjoerd Harder,
• Remco W. A. Havenith,
• Jeff T. M. De Hosson and
• Willem F. van Dorp

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2017, 8, 2753–2765, doi:10.3762/bjnano.8.274

• hand, solid crystalline ClAuCO decomposes so rapidly that we only detect AuCl in the electron microscope. This instability is inconsistent with a ΔG value of +25.5 kcal/mol. On the other hand, Mulders et al. have shown that, once ClAuCO molecules reach the gas phase, they are stable enough to travel

• CF3AuCO as only stable at low temperatures and quickly darkening at room temperature, preventing elemental analysis [77]. To our knowledge there is no literature data on the stability of CF3AuCO in vacuum (for the solid phase nor for the gas phase). ClAuPMe3 is the most stable compound in Table 2, the

• solid state (+10.5 kcal/mol) compared to the gas phase value of ΔG of +36.75 kcal/mol at atmospheric pressure indicates a stabilization of AuCl (or destabilization of ClAuCO) due to interactions in the solid state. The further decrease in ΔG upon going from atmospheric pressure to vacuum is indicative

Synthesis of [{AgO₂CCH₂OMe(PPh₃)}_n] and theoretical study of its use in focused electron beam induced deposition

• Jelena Tamuliene,
• Julian Noll,
• Peter Frenzel,
• Tobias Rüffer,
• Alexander Jakob,
• Bernhard Walfort and
• Heinrich Lang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2017, 8, 2615–2624, doi:10.3762/bjnano.8.262

• was shown that coordination compounds, for example, silver(I) carboxylates can successfully be applied as single-source species for silver nanoparticle formation [6] and as gas-phase precursors in the deposition of pure, dense and conformal thin silver films [7][8][9]. This study aims for showing if

• (Experimental; Supporting Information File 1, Figures S6 and S7). These results suggest the processing of 2 in nanoelectrospray liquid precursor injection as well as standard gas-phase FEBID [14]. Suitable single crystals of [{AgO2CCH2OMe(PPh3)}n] were obtained by layering a concentrated solution of

• mass spectrometric studies and sublimation experiments were carried out with 2, indicating its usability in nanoelectrospray liquid precursor injection [14] as well as in standard gas-phase FEBID processes for silver deposition. Based on the chemical and physical properties of 2 and on the appearance

Interactions of low-energy electrons with the FEBID precursor chromium hexacarbonyl (Cr(CO)₆)

• Jusuf M. Khreis,
• João Ameixa,
• Filipe Ferreira da Silva and
• Stephan Denifl

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2017, 8, 2583–2590, doi:10.3762/bjnano.8.258

• deposition (FEBID) can be considered an assisted chemical vapour deposition (CVD) technique. However, in the former case the organometallic precursor is not fragmented by thermal energy but instead by a high-energy electron beam. The precursor molecules are delivered to the substrate in the gas phase and

• to electron attachment under isolated conditions were observed. The ion yield curves (ion yield plotted as a function of the initial electron energy) for the formation of cluster anions containing two or more iron atoms turned out to be different from those of Fe(CO)5 in the gas phase. The dimer

Amplified cross-linking efficiency of self-assembled monolayers through targeted dissociative electron attachment for the production of carbon nanomembranes

• Sascha Koch,
• Christopher D. Kaiser,
• Paul Penner,
• Michael Barclay,
• Lena Frommeyer,
• Daniel Emmrich,
• Patrick Stohmann,
• Tarek Abu-Husein,
• Andreas Terfort,
• D. Howard Fairbrother,
• Oddur Ingólfsson and
• Armin Gölzhäuser

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2017, 8, 2562–2571, doi:10.3762/bjnano.8.256

• process in the gas phase (Figure 1) shows that the relative difference between 2-Cl-BPT and 2-Br-BPT is less clear in the SAMs. This is to be expected due to the different conditions in the condensed phase as compared to the gas phase, for example, different temperatures and additional energy dissipation

• channels introduced at the surface as compared to single collision conditions in the gas phase. Furthermore, the gas phase studies shown in Figure 1 show only the halogen loss through DEA. The XPS data on the other hand show the total dehalogenation, independent of the underlying process, that is, DI, ND

• irradiation as compared to gas-phase molecules under single collision conditions. However, though qualitative in nature, our experiments show that the electron-induced dehalogenation process is substantially more efficient in the 2-I-BPT SAMs than the 2-Cl-BPT and 2-Br-BPT SAMs. It is reasonable to assume

Comparing postdeposition reactions of electrons and radicals with Pt nanostructures created by focused electron beam induced deposition

• Julie A. Spencer,
• Michael Barclay,
• Miranda J. Gallagher,
• Robert Winkler,
• Ilyas Unlu,
• Yung-Chien Wu,
• Harald Plank,
• Lisa McElwee-White and
• D. Howard Fairbrother

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2017, 8, 2410–2424, doi:10.3762/bjnano.8.240

• studies, the removal of carbon is often emphasized due to its prevalence as an impurity in the deposited nanostructures. One of the most widely studied non-thermal purification strategies is electron beam induced purification, typically performed in the presence of a gas-phase species, usually either

• oxygen or water. In these techniques, the electron beam dissociates gas phase reactants to yield reactive oxygen species, which then convert deposited carbon into volatile compounds such as CO and CO2 [16][17][18][19]. Villamor et al. [20] observed that either by post deposition electron beam processing

• ], where purification is ascribed at least in part to a laser-induced oxidation process. In this technique, the reactive oxygen species are produced from gas phase reactants, such as oxygen, that are deliberately introduced. Sequential cycles of electron-induced deposition are followed by laser-induced

Electron beam induced deposition of silacyclohexane and dichlorosilacyclohexane: the role of dissociative ionization and dissociative electron attachment in the deposition process

• Ragesh Kumar T P,
• Sangeetha Hari,
• Krishna K Damodaran,
• Oddur Ingólfsson and
• Cornelis W. Hagen

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2017, 8, 2376–2388, doi:10.3762/bjnano.8.237

• and we compare the proximity effect observed for these compounds. The two precursors show similar behaviour with regards to fragmentation through dissociative ionization in the gas phase under single-collision conditions. However, while DCSCH shows appreciable cross sections with regards to

• into applicable design criteria for superior FEBID precursors. In this context a considerable number of gas-phase studies have been conducted, mainly on DEA and DI of different organometallic FEBID precursors. Complementary surface science studies have been carried out to better relate the gas-phase

• current experiments are thus largely confined to DEA and DI of FEBID precursors. Despite this, significant insight has been provided by the gas-phase and surface-science studies and in individual cases a distinction between the role of DEA and DI in the deposition process has been achieved

Dissociative electron attachment to coordination complexes of chromium: chromium(0) hexacarbonyl and benzene-chromium(0) tricarbonyl

• Janina Kopyra,
• Paulina Maciejewska and
• Jelena Maljković

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2017, 8, 2257–2263, doi:10.3762/bjnano.8.225

• we report the results of dissociative electron attachment (DEA) to gas-phase chromium(0) hexacarbonyl (Cr(CO)6) and benzene-chromium(0) tricarbonyl ((η6-C6H6)Cr(CO)3) in the energy range of 0–12 eV. Measurements have been performed utilizing an electron-molecular crossed beam setup. It was found that

• ; dissociative electron attachment; gas phase reactions; mass spectrometry; Introduction Organometallic compounds are a large class of compounds with numerous applications such as homogeneous catalysts for the synthesis of fine chemicals or even enantiomerically pure products used in the pharmaceutical industry

• primary beam. To date there have been several papers devoted to the studies of the interaction of low energy electrons with gas-phase organometallic complexes. Particular attention has been paid to the compounds containing monodentate (e.g., carbonyl [12][13][14], trifluorophosphine [11][15], chloride [16

Comprehensive investigation of the electronic excitation of W(CO)₆ by photoabsorption and theoretical analysis in the energy region from 3.9 to 10.8 eV

• Mónica Mendes,
• Khrystyna Regeta,
• Filipe Ferreira da Silva,
• Nykola C. Jones,
• Søren Vrønning Hoffmann,
• Gustavo García,
• Chantal Daniel and
• Paulo Limão-Vieira

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2017, 8, 2208–2218, doi:10.3762/bjnano.8.220

• beam impinging on the surface where dissociative electron attachment (DEA) processes are relevant, although at those energies electron impact excitations yielding neutral dissociation are prevalent in detriment to DEA [25]. Gas-phase DEA studies in the electron energy range from 0 to 14 eV reported by

Suppression of low-energy dissociative electron attachment in Fe(CO)₅ upon clustering

• Jozef Lengyel,
• Peter Papp,
• Štefan Matejčík,
• Jaroslav Kočišek,
• Michal Fárník and
• Juraj Fedor

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2017, 8, 2200–2207, doi:10.3762/bjnano.8.219

• electron attachment in isolated Fe(CO)5. Keywords: aggregation effects; dissociative electron attachment; FEBID; iron pentacarbonyl; long-range interactions; Introduction In recent years a number of gas-phase studies on molecules that are commonly used as precursors in electron-induced nanofabrication

• [12][13]. The environment can thus both enhance and suppress the low-energy DEA reactions and it is difficult to assess its effect a priori. Clusters represent an ideal tool for studying the effect of an environment since they allow for using the same experimental approach as the gas phase studies

• (crossed electron – target beam with product mass analysis) and enable direct comparisons for various aggregation degrees (gas phase – small clusters – large clusters). When compared to the surface-based ion desorption approach, cluster-beam experiments do not suffer from desorption probability problem

Angstrom-scale flatness using selective nanoscale etching

• Takashi Yatsui,
• Hiroshi Saito and
• Katsuyuki Nobusada

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2017, 8, 2181–2185, doi:10.3762/bjnano.8.217

• . To understand the differences of the etching properties, we estimated the mean free paths (MFPs) of Cl2 and ClO−. The MFP of Cl2 in the gas phase is on the order of 10 μm (≈RT/√2NAπd2P [15], where R = 8.31 J K−1mol−1, T = 300 K, NA = 6.02 × 1023 mol−1, d = 200 × 10−12 m (the diameter of a Cl2

• -field dry etching, because of a greater MFP value of the gas phase that exceeds the scanning area, the dissociated atoms can react only when they are located at the protrusions where the ONF generated. Conclusion Using two-dimensional Fourier analysis, we found that near-field etching is effective for

Ester formation at the liquid–solid interface

• Nguyen T. N. Ha,
• Thiruvancheril G. Gopakumar,
• Nguyen D. C. Yen,
• Carola Mende,
• Lars Smykalla,
• Maik Schlesinger,
• Roy Buschbeck,
• Tobias Rüffer,
• Heinrich Lang,
• Michael Mehring and
• Michael Hietschold

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2017, 8, 2139–2150, doi:10.3762/bjnano.8.213

• products. Scheme 1 shows a proposed reversible esterification route with a dimer intermediate of TMA and undecanol to TMA–monoundecyl ester. The possible formation of TMA–monoundecyl ester and water from a TMA–undecanol dimer in the gas phase (see energy diagram in Figure 8) was simulated. To simulate the

• should be almost parallel to the A axis. Energy diagram of the reaction path of TMA and undecanol to form TMA–undecyl ester and water for isolated molecules (gas phase) calculated using DFT (PBE). The corresponding geometry of the molecules in the simulation is shown for each energy point marked in the

Advances and challenges in the field of plasma polymer nanoparticles

• Andrei Choukourov,
• Pavel Pleskunov,
• Daniil Nikitin,
• Valerii Titov,
• Artem Shelemin,
• Mykhailo Vaidulych,
• Anna Kuzminova,
• Pavel Solař,
• Jan Hanuš,
• Jaroslav Kousal,
• Ondřej Kylián,
• Danka Slavínská and
• Hynek Biederman

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2017, 8, 2002–2014, doi:10.3762/bjnano.8.200

• used as precursors for plasma polymerization [43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52]. Depending on the experimental conditions, plasma polymerization can be forced to proceed in a gas phase which results in the formation of NPs of different chemical and physical properties and with different size

• coagulation is therefore suppressed by Coulomb repulsion, and further NP growth proceeds by accretion via the accumulation of polymer-forming neutral species (radicals) and positive ions from the gas phase. The resultant plasma polymer NPs have a spherical symmetry but can exhibit different morphology

• addition of oxygen. FTIR and XPS (Figure 8a,b) analyses demonstrate the organosilicon character of the NPs produced without O2 and its gradual transfer to the inorganic state with the addition of O2. The gas phase composition can be optimized to produce nearly stoichiometric SiO2 NPs (Figure 7c), which are

Bi-layer sandwich film for antibacterial catheters

• Gerhard Franz,
• Florian Schamberger,
• Hamideh Heidari Zare,
• Sara Felicitas Bröskamp and
• Dieter Jocham

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2017, 8, 1982–2001, doi:10.3762/bjnano.8.199

• of the depositing molecules decreases exponentially with penetration depth not only by diffusion but also by deposition losses, which causes a steeply dropping layer thickness. The reaction can occur in the gas phase as well as during or after the process of condensation (physisorption). By diluting

• gases. Vapor enters through a heated pipe and reacts either in the volume (gas-phase reaction) or on cold surfaces (solid-state reaction) to a polymer by chain-building. To prevent evaporation during the heating ramp (approx. 45 min), which would cause an irreproducible layer thickness, a flow of argon

• lead to unwanted reactions are reduced. These unwanted reactions lead to polymerization and grain formation in the gas phase. Eventually, these grains arrive at the surface, which is clearly revealed by SEM inspection (Figure 17a). Properties of sub-micrometer layers As our interest is focused on very

Enhancement of mechanical and electrical properties of continuous-fiber-reinforced epoxy composites with stacked graphene

• Naum Naveh,
• Olga Shepelev and
• Samuel Kenig

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2017, 8, 1909–1918, doi:10.3762/bjnano.8.191

• -cost conductive alternative [7]. GNPs can be produced by intercalation of the graphitic layers with an appropriate agent followed by exfoliation of the graphite flakes. Exfoliation is obtained by rapid heating resulting in conversion of the intercalant to a gas phase forcing the adjacent graphene

Non-intuitive clustering of 9,10-phenanthrenequinone on Au(111)

• Ryan D. Brown,
• Rebecca C. Quardokus,
• Natalie A. Wasio,
• Jacob P. Petersen,
• Angela M. Silski,
• Steven A. Corcelli and
• S. Alex Kandel

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2017, 8, 1801–1807, doi:10.3762/bjnano.8.181

• other. It is apparent from the original image and the tetramer composite image that within this cluster the molecules orient with the carbonyl groups projecting into the center of this cluster. If considered as a gas-phase species, the observed tetramer conformation positions the net dipole of each

Evaluation of preparation methods for suspended nano-objects on substrates for dimensional measurements by atomic force microscopy

• Petra Fiala,
• Daniel Göhler,
• Benno Wessely,
• Michael Stintz,
• Giovanni Mattia Lazzerini and
• Andrew Yacoot

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2017, 8, 1774–1785, doi:10.3762/bjnano.8.179

• procedure (Plasma Prep II, SPI Supplies) was chosen. A study of cleaning methods for silicon has been undertaken in [15]. The application of conditioned samples on the conditioned substrates were performed by four liquid phase preparation methods and two gas phase preparation methods as summarised in Table

• be deposited individually in case of a corresponding initial concentration. The deposition rate can be set effectively and reproducibly via the residence time in the suspension. Gas phase preparation Over the last few decades several devices for the deposition of airborne particles on substrates have

• -conditioned, gas phase preparation methods require two additional steps, i.e., aerosol generation (e.g., atomization) and aerosol conditioning (e.g., classifying, dilution, neutralisation). The most common method for this is the atomization of suspensions with subsequent aerosol drying (e.g., diffusion drying

Fluorination of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes: from CF₄ plasma chemistry to surface functionalization

• Claudia Struzzi,
• Mattia Scardamaglia,
• Jean-François Colomer,
• Alberto Verdini,
• Luca Floreano,
• Rony Snyders and
• Carla Bittencourt

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2017, 8, 1723–1733, doi:10.3762/bjnano.8.173

• normalized to the total ion signal of all masses detected during each experiment. The point relative to power P = 0 W is representative for the CF4 gas phase, the plasma is not ignited and the CF4 flows in the chamber. The mass spectrum is dominated by the intense signal corresponding to the ionized CF3 (m/z

• different plasma power (the working pressure is set to 10 mTorr). The masses under study are relative to the following ionized species: CF (m/z = 31 amu), CF2 (m/z = 50 amu), CF3 (m/z = 69 amu), and HF (m/z = 20 amu), COF (m/z = 47 amu), COF2 (m/z = 66 amu). b) FTIR spectra acquired during pure CF4 gas

• phase (dotted line) and during CF4 plasma ignited at different power (from 10 to 250 W). The two frames in the figure detail the peaks located at 1286 and 1261 cm−1 for better visualization of the intensity variation. c) Intensities of the FTIR peaks related to CF4 (at 1539 cm−1), CF2 (at 667.4 cm−1

Parylene C as a versatile dielectric material for organic field-effect transistors

• Tomasz Marszalek,
• Maciej Gazicki-Lipman and
• Jacek Ulanski

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2017, 8, 1532–1545, doi:10.3762/bjnano.8.155

• with the accompanying chemical reactions, is presented in Figure 1. There is a number of advantages of the parylene technology. First of all, being a gas-phase diffusion-controlled process, it yields smooth pinhole-free conformal coatings with excellent penetration abilities. Second, there are several