Exploring the potential of polymers: advancements in oral nanocarrier technology

• Rousilândia de Araujo Silva,
• Igor Eduardo Silva Arruda,
• Luise Lopes Chaves,
• Mônica Felts de La Roca Soares and
• Jose Lamartine Soares Sobrinho

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1751–1793, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.122

• protrusions induced by growth factors, bacteria, viruses, and necrotic cells. These protrusions either collapse into endocytic vesicles or retract into the membrane, fusing with it and forming macropinosomes [80]. CME involves interactions between clathrin-associated adaptors and sorting proteins, forming

• coated pits along the plasma membrane. These pits undergo disassembly via dynamin, leading to the formation of vesicles that are transported to endosomes for subsequent degradation. NPs smaller than 200 nm with a positive surface charge, as well as growth factors and transferrin, are internalized through

• CME, enabling targeted therapy [81]. The dimeric protein caveolin-1 is the primary agent in CvME, playing key roles in cell signaling, lipid regulation, and vesicular transport. It also defines the characteristic flask-like shape of vesicles and is located on the cytosolic side of the membrane

Multifunctional anionic nanoemulsion with linseed oil and lecithin: a preliminary approach for dry eye disease

• Niédja Fittipaldi Vasconcelos,
• Almerinda Agrelli,
• Rayane Cristine Santos da Silva,
• Carina Lucena Mendes-Marques,
• Isabel Renata de Souza Arruda,
• Priscilla Stela Santana de Oliveira,
• Mércia Liane de Oliveira and
• Giovanna Machado

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1711–1733, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.120

• , thus destabilizing bilayer formation. Conversely, lecithins with a higher proportion of saturated phospholipids are more likely to organize into stable bilayer vesicles like liposomes. These structural features of lecithin play a crucial role in determining the physicochemical properties of the

Prospects of nanotechnology and natural products for cancer and immunotherapy

• Jan Filipe Andrade Santos,
• Marcela Bernardes Brasileiro,
• Pamela Danielle Cavalcante Barreto,
• Ligiane Aranha Rocha and
• José Adão Carvalho Nascimento Júnior

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1644–1667, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.116

• were developed using membrane vesicles from a Curtobacterium proimmune K3 strain, isolated from ginseng, and black cumin seed extract, which are presented in the formulation in the form of stabilizing adjuvants. The use of ginseng is based on the fact that its components may have anticancer effects

Enhancing the therapeutical potential of metalloantibiotics using nano-based delivery systems

• Alejandro Llamedo,
• Marina Cano,
• Raquel G. Soengas and
• Francisco J. García-Alonso

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1350–1366, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.98

• ability to carry both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs. These self-assembled vesicles consist of phospholipid bilayers that encapsulate an aqueous core, allowing for the entrapment of various therapeutic agents [57]. Liposomes can be designed to carry multiple types of drugs within the same system

• , significantly expanding their applications [58]. The structure of liposomes can vary, with unilamellar and multilamellar vesicles being the two main forms, offering flexibility in the types of drugs they can deliver. In addition, size, surface charge, and lipid composition of these nanoparticles can be tailored

Ferroptosis induction by engineered liposomes for enhanced tumor therapy

• Alireza Ghasempour,
• Mohammad Amin Tokallou,
• Mohammad Reza Naderi Allaf,
• Mohsen Moradi,
• Hamideh Dehghan,
• Mahsa Sedighi,
• Mohammad-Ali Shahbazi and
• Fahimeh Lavi Arab

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1325–1349, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.97

• promoting ferroptosis [104][105][106]. 3 Liposomes Liposomes are spherical vesicles composed of one or more phospholipid bilayers and have been investigated as drug carriers due to their unique properties and versatility [107]. Glycerophospholipids, sphingomyelin, and cholesterol are the main components of

• and 31P NMR are used to evaluate the lamellarity of liposomes, which refers to the number of bilayers of lipids in the vesicles [122]. 31P NMR provides information on membrane fluidity and phase transitions, while cryo-TEM allows for direct observation of the number of lipid bilayers [110]. X-ray

• systems. The EE of liposomes, which determines the amount of drug loaded into the vesicles, can be evaluated by various analytical methods. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and capillary electrophoresis (CE) are widely used methods to quantify the encapsulated drug [110][125]. HPLC separates

Better together: biomimetic nanomedicines for high performance tumor therapy

• Imran Shair Mohammad,
• Gizem Kursunluoglu,
• Anup Kumar Patel,
• Hafiz Muhammad Ishaq,
• Cansu Umran Tunc,
• Dilek Kanarya,
• Mubashar Rehman,
• Omer Aydin and
• Yin Lifang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1246–1276, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.92

• are efficiently taken up by cells due to their surface markers [104]. The International Society for Extracellular Vesicles has set out guidelines on the purity of extracellular vesicles depending upon intended applications [105]. Through exosomes, donor cells can transfer exogenous substances, such as

A formulation containing Cymbopogon flexuosus essential oil: improvement of biochemical parameters and oxidative stress in diabetic rats

• Ailton Santos Sena-Júnior,
• Cleverton Nascimento Santana Andrade,
• Pedro Henrique Macedo Moura,
• Jocsã Hémany Cândido dos Santos,
• Cauãn Torres Trancoso,
• Eloia Emanuelly Dias Silva,
• Deise Maria Rego Rodrigues Silva,
• Ênio Pereira Telles,
• Luiz André Santos Silva,
• Isabella Lima Dantas Teles,
• Sara Fernanda Mota de Almeida,
• Daniel Alves de Souza,
• Jileno Ferreira Santos,
• Felipe José Aidar Martins,
• Ana Mara de Oliveira e Silva,
• Sandra Lauton-Santos,
• Guilherme Rodolfo Souza de Araujo,
• Cristiane Bani Correa,
• Rogéria De Souza Nunes,
• Lysandro Pinto Borges and
• Ana Amélia Moreira Lira

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 617–636, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.48

• cytoplasmic vesicles, indicating dysfunction in metabolization and impaired cell metabolism. This finding, associated with necrosis and inflammation, suggests an exacerbated cellular response to an aggressive agent, leading to structural collapse of the liver tissue. These histopathological changes indicate

• one of the most obvious findings, characterized by the accumulation of cytoplasmic vesicles, a phenomenon often associated with degenerative and apoptotic processes. This alteration reflects an impairment of cellular homeostasis and represents an important marker of liver damage in various

Nanomaterials in targeting amyloid-β oligomers: current advances and future directions for Alzheimer's disease diagnosis and therapy

• Shiwani Randhawa,
• Trilok Chand Saini,
• Manik Bathla,
• Rahul Bhardwaj,
• Rubina Dhiman and
• Amitabha Acharya

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 561–580, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.44

• nanobiomaterials derived from cell primitives as a promising therapeutic strategy. These biomimetic nanomaterials, comprising components such as cells, extracellular vesicles (EVs), and cell membranes offer several advantages. Their nanoparticulate size facilitates long-term circulation, reduces immune response

Synthetic-polymer-assisted antisense oligonucleotide delivery: targeted approaches for precision disease treatment

• Ana Cubillo Alvarez,
• Dylan Maguire and
• Ruairí P. Brannigan

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 435–463, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.34

• endocytosis enables cellular entry, achieving efficient release and nuclear delivery of ASOs remains a challenge as a consequence of potential sequestration and degradation within endocytic vesicles [79][80]. This issue is prevalent in the majority of therapeutic delivery systems that enter via endocytosis

Recent advances in photothermal nanomaterials for ophthalmic applications

• Jiayuan Zhuang,
• Linhui Jia,
• Chenghao Li,
• Rui Yang,
• Jiapeng Wang,
• Wen-an Wang,
• Heng Zhou and
• Xiangxia Luo

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 195–215, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.16

• , over time, the excessive proliferation of conjunctival fibroblasts and remodeling of collagen around the vesicles can lead to the failure of the surgical effects [144]. The primary strategy to counter fibrosis has been the use of antimetabolic drugs, but this often leads to complications like filter

• thermally destroys conjunctival fibroblasts and invasive bacteria around conjunctival vesicles, while the 5-fluorouracil (5-Fu) inhibits fibrous responses in filter vesicles, thus achieving effective IOP reduction [145]. 3.5 Endophthalmitis Endophthalmitis, commonly resulting from pathogenic infections, is

Nanocarriers and macrophage interaction: from a potential hurdle to an alternative therapeutic strategy

• Naths Grazia Sukubo,
• Paolo Bigini and
• Annalisa Morelli

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 97–118, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.10

Mechanistic insights into endosomal escape by sodium oleate-modified liposomes

• Ebrahim Sadaqa,
• Satrialdi,
• Fransiska Kurniawan and
• Diky Mudhakir

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1667–1685, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.131

• drug delivery has spurred extensive research into liposomal systems. These vesicles, with their inherent ability to encapsulate and protect a diverse range of therapeutic agents, including small molecule drugs, proteins, and genetic material such as DNA and RNA, hold significant promise for

• vesicles. To standardize the size distribution, the sonicated dispersion underwent five cycles of extrusion through a 100 nm polycarbonate membrane using an Avanti Mini-Extruder. The finalized liposomal formations underwent a comprehensive characterization, assessing size, PDI, and zeta potential through

Attempts to preserve and visualize protein corona on the surface of biological nanoparticles in blood serum using photomodification

• Julia E. Poletaeva,
• Anastasiya V. Tupitsyna,
• Alina E. Grigor’eva,
• Ilya S. Dovydenko and
• Elena I. Ryabchikova

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1654–1666, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.130

• results showed that a protein corona is present on extracellular vesicles and lipoproteins isolated by UC. The isolation of bio-NPs through sucrose gradient or cushion did not preserve the protein corona. At the same time, we observed signs of a negative effect of the sucrose gradient on bio-NPs of intact

• obtained direct images of a “natural” protein corona on natural bio-NPs of blood serum for the first time Keywords: chylomicrons; extracellular vesicles; lipoproteins; photomodification; protein corona; Introduction The existence of a protein corona on all nanoparticles (NPs) entering biological fluids

• are increasingly interested in studying the protein corona on extracellular vesicles (EVs), mainly exosomes, which play an important role in the transmission of molecular signals in the body. The influence of the protein corona on EVs on their interaction with body cells, including cells of the immune

Biomimetic nanocarriers: integrating natural functions for advanced therapeutic applications

• Hugo Felix Perini,
• Beatriz Sodré Matos,
• Carlo José Freire de Oliveira and
• Marcos Vinicius da Silva

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1619–1626, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.127

• such as: loss of stability, low efficiency in crossing biological barriers, inadequate efficacy in reaching target active molecules, and poor biodistribution [13][14]. Nanocarriers are employed to transport raw materials, which can be vesicles or solid nanoparticles [15]. Despite the significant

• these carriers are improved [19][21][22][23][24][25]. Various cellular components such as extracellular vesicles, leukocyte and red blood cell membranes are beneficial for developing bioinspired devices. Specific targets, including peptides, aptamers, proteins, and viral capsids, may also be utilized in

• -described for nanoparticles, and this process entails three steps: obtaining membrane-derived vesicles from a cellular source (1); generating the nanoparticles (2); and fusing the vesicles with the particles (3) [34][35][36][37]. Obtaining membrane vesicles requires the lysis of donor cells, necessitating

Entry of nanoparticles into cells and tissues: status and challenges

• Kirsten Sandvig,
• Tore Geir Iversen and
• Tore Skotland

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1017–1029, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.83

• excretion. Finally, we discuss requirements for bringing NPs into clinical use and aspects when it comes to usage of complex and slowly degraded or nondegradable NPs. Keywords: biodegradable; biodistribution; endocytosis; extracellular vesicles; nanomedicine; nanoparticles; Introduction Nanoparticles (NPs

• types of molecules. It is now common to include vesicles originating from cells as being NPs. During the last decade there has been an amazing increase in studies of exosomes, small vesicles secreted by fusion of multivesicular bodies (late endosomes) with the plasma membrane of cells. Also, release of

• other types of vesicles, for instance from the plasma membrane, may play a role in the transfer of information between cells. For a list of various types of extracellular vesicles (EVs), see [5]. For therapeutic purposes, EVs may not only be loaded with drugs after the release from cells, but incubation

Comparative analysis of the ultrastructure and adhesive secretion pathways of different smooth attachment pads of the stick insect Medauroidea extradentata (Phasmatodea)

• Julian Thomas,
• Stanislav N. Gorb and
• Thies H. Büscher

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 612–630, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.52

• presence of numerous vesicles (ve), which can be distinguished as either black when stained with toluidine blue and Cason or show an orange colour without staining (Figure 3A,B,E). When observed using SEM, these vesicles appear smooth and appear to be detached from the surrounding cellular structures

• images revealed vesicles (ve) inside the cells. These either exhibited substantial staining intensity due to the applied staining methods or displayed an orange coloration without staining (Figure 5A,B,E). Upon examination through SEM, they appeared spherical and presented either a smooth or slightly

• of both attachment pads show multiple morphological similarities. Both exocrine cells display comparable staining patterns with toluidine blue and Cason. They possess a sizable nucleus containing numerous nucleoli, a substantial abundance of vesicles and hollow spaces, the absence of a discernible

Cholesterol nanoarchaeosomes for alendronate targeted delivery as an anti-endothelial dysfunction agent

• Horacio Emanuel Jerez,
• Yamila Roxana Simioni,
• Kajal Ghosal,
• Maria Jose Morilla and
• Eder Lilia Romero

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 517–534, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.46

• types respond to LPS stimulation with more irritation; FCs are known to facilitate pathogenesis by producing eicosanoids, tissue-damaging enzymes, and extracellular vesicles [86]. The resultant responses diffused either downwards or upwards across the porous membrane, constituting what we called a

Nanomedicines against Chagas disease: a critical review

• Maria Jose Morilla,
• Kajal Ghosal and
• Eder Lilia Romero

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 333–349, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.30

• remaining nearly 45% are lipid-based nanoparticles, constituting the most prevalent category of nanomedicines accessible in the market [91]. These include uni- or multilamellar liposomes (vesicles formed by bilayers of amphiphilic lipids), and lipid nanoparticles. The introduction of new preparation

• expensive, enterprise. Much more expensive and riskier will be developing nanomedicines for the delivery of non-approved molecules. In 2021, the effect of a subcutaneous immunostimulant with imiquimod loaded in nanoarchaeosomes (a type of lipid vesicles, nanoarc-imq) on an acute model of CD was reported

Ferromagnetic resonance spectra of linear magnetosome chains

• Elizaveta M. Gubanova and
• Nikolai A. Usov

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 157–167, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.15

• along the chain axis. In contrast, it was shown [39] that the formation of magnetosomes in a bacterium can occur simultaneously in many germ vesicles along its length. In this case, it is not clear what reason can lead to the occurrence of E-type anisotropy in the chain. Rather, one would expect a

Curcumin-loaded nanostructured systems for treatment of leishmaniasis: a review

• Douglas Dourado,
• Thayse Silva Medeiros,
• Éverton do Nascimento Alencar,
• Edijane Matos Sales and
• Fábio Rocha Formiga

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 37–50, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.4

• ]. Although this nanostructured system is a promising carrier, further in vitro and in vivo studies are necessary to evaluate such improvements for curc or other leishmanicidal drugs. Nanoliposomes Nanoliposomes are nanoscale lipid bilayer vesicles mainly composed of phospholipids. These systems (small

• nanoliposomes promoting increased antiparasitic activity. Recently, Bafghi and collaborators produced nanoliposomes for curc delivery as a new alternative for leishmaniasis treatment [89]. Briefly, the nanoliposomes were prepared by thin-film hydration, resulting in spherical vesicles with 176.5 nm of diameter

Nanotechnological approaches in the treatment of schistosomiasis: an overview

• Lucas Carvalho,
• Michelle Sarcinelli and
• Beatriz Patrício

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 13–25, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.2

• homogenization); (2) low-energy methods, which requires the precipitation of nanoparticles from homogeneous systems (such as microemulsions); and (3) methods based on organic solvents (emulsification–diffusion method) [35]. Liposomes are vesicles composed of a phospholipid and cholesterol with an aqueous core

Elasticity, an often-overseen parameter in the development of nanoscale drug delivery systems

• Agnes-Valencia Weiss and
• Marc Schneider

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2023, 14, 1149–1156, doi:10.3762/bjnano.14.95

• with a model hydrogel that there is a higher penetration for more deformable extracellular vesicles from mouse mesenchymal stromal cells [37]. A second study, from Yu et al., shows rigidity-dependent penetration of lipid NPs in the mucus layer of rat intestinal mucus. Liposomes were either hollow or

Green SPIONs as a novel highly selective treatment for leishmaniasis: an in vitro study against Leishmania amazonensis intracellular amastigotes

• Brunno R. F. Verçoza,
• Robson R. Bernardo,
• Luiz Augusto S. de Oliveira and
• Juliany C. F. Rodrigues

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2023, 14, 893–903, doi:10.3762/bjnano.14.73

• ultrastructural changes were observed in intracellular amastigotes: (1) many lipid bodies (A–C, thin arrows), (2) increased secretion of extracellular vesicles (A–C, broad arrows), (3) intracellular vacuolization (A–C, arrows), (4) myelin-like figures (A, arrowhead), (5) mitochondrial swelling (C, star), and (6

The steep road to nonviral nanomedicines: Frequent challenges and culprits in designing nanoparticles for gene therapy

• Yao Yao,
• Yeongun Ko,
• Grant Grasman,
• Jeffery E. Raymond and
• Joerg Lahann

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2023, 14, 351–361, doi:10.3762/bjnano.14.30

• measurement. For NTA, ASTM 2834 provides workflows for planning NP experiments. Through the study of nanoscale extracellular vesicles, Bachurski et al. [68] provide some additional insights comparing the performance of different NTA systems to cryo-TEM and single-particle interferometric reflectance imaging

Recent progress in cancer cell membrane-based nanoparticles for biomedical applications

• Qixiong Lin,
• Yueyou Peng,
• Yanyan Wen,
• Xiaoqiong Li,
• Donglian Du,
• Weibin Dai,
• Wei Tian and
• Yanfeng Meng

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2023, 14, 262–279, doi:10.3762/bjnano.14.24

• membranes have been exploited for the development of novel membrane NP-based therapies, such as erythrocytes [10], platelets [11], cancer cells [14], stem cells [12], immune cells [13], central nervous system-derived cells [17], bacterial outer membrane vesicles [18], and extracellular vesicles [19]. Cancer