Venom-loaded cationic-functionalized poly(lactic acid) nanoparticles for serum production against Tityus serrulatus scorpion

• Philippe de Castro Mesquita,
• Karla Samara Rocha Soares,
• Manoela Torres-Rêgo,
• Emanuell dos Santos-Silva,
• Mariana Farias Alves-Silva,
• Alianda Maira Cornélio,
• Matheus de Freitas Fernandes-Pedrosa and
• Arnóbio Antônio da Silva-Júnior

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1633–1643, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.115

• vitro, creates a challenge for drug delivery systems aiming to effectively target affected tissues or cells [14][15]. Nanocarriers have been widely studied for enabling prolonged circulation and sustained drug release over time, depending on their structural properties [16][17]. Therefore, protein

• delivery through nanoparticles is an effective way to control drug release as well as to design an efficient protein delivery system [16]. Among different materials used for nanocarriers, several polymers have been investigated for producing cationic nanocarriers due to their ability to cross biological

Photocatalytic degradation of ofloxacin in water assisted by TiO₂ nanowires on carbon cloth: contributions of H₂O₂ addition and substrate absorbability

• Iram Hussain,
• Lisha Zhang,
• Zhizhen Ye and
• Jin-Ming Wu

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1567–1579, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.111

• ; ofloxacin; photocatalytic degradation; TiO2 nanowires; wastewater treatment; Introduction Drug pollution in natural environments has become an increasingly serious issue as a result of the wide applications of drugs in the diagnosis and treatment of human diseases, anti-epidemic disinfection, aquaculture

• investigation, we extend the application to drug pollution treatments with OFL as a model molecule. Since H2O2 produces reactive oxygen species (ROS), which promote the oxidation and degradation of OFL, H2O2 was introduced into the system to increase the photocatalytic efficiency, and the impacts of its

Transient electronics for sustainability: Emerging technologies and future directions

• Jae-Young Bae,
• Myung-Kyun Choi and
• Seung-Kyun Kang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1545–1556, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.109

• stimulators, and drug delivery vehicles, as well as environmentally benign electronics for soil or aquatic disposal. Despite their potential, key challenges remain in expanding the material set for diverse functionalities, achieving high-density integration for advanced operations, and enabling precise

• postoperative recovery period [10] (Figure 1c), and drug delivery vehicles developed to enable remotely triggered, programmable release of therapeutic agents, followed by complete degradation without the need for extraction [8][25]. Recent advances in minimally invasive delivery techniques have further expanded

Cross-reactivities in conjugation reactions involving iron oxide nanoparticles

• Shoronia N. Cross,
• Katalin V. Korpany,
• Hanine Zakaria and
• Amy Szuchmacher Blum

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1504–1521, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.106

• Michael addition; Introduction Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) have been the subject of an immense body of research in the field of biomedicine, where their magnetic properties are appealing for such applications as MRI contrast agents [1], tumor hyperthermia [2], and magnetic drug delivery [3

• targeting and drug payload delivery. The ability to chemically modify the ligand layer of IONPs, while maintaining their morphology and magnetic properties, is thus paramount to the preparation of functional IONPs. The use of highly selective conjugation reactions such as 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl

Nanomaterials for biomedical applications

• Iqra Zainab,
• Zohra Naseem,
• Syeda Rubab Batool,
• Filippo Pierini,
• Seda Kizilel and
• Muhammad Anwaar Nazeer

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1499–1503, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.105

• , Istanbul, Turkey 10.3762/bjnano.16.105 Keywords: biomedical applications; drug delivery; nanocarriers; nanomaterials; nanomedicine; nanoparticles; polymeric nanoparticles; tissue regeneration; Medicine has rapidly advanced over the last few decades, and nanotechnology has played a significant role in

• adverse effects and increasing the success rate of the delivery. Since nanomaterials can be tunable, the vast majority of health sectors are investigating their potential in a wide range of applications, such as targeted drug delivery, gene therapy, tissue regeneration, imaging, and diagnostic tools [2

• strength, more effective functioning, and biological compatibility [7]. Nanomaterials play a leading role in drug delivery and gene transportation. Older methods for drug delivery usually do work well, miss their intended targets, and cause unwanted side effects. Nanotechnology helps with this challenge by

Laser processing in liquids: insights into nanocolloid generation and thin film integration for energy, photonic, and sensing applications

• Akshana Parameswaran Sreekala,
• Pooja Raveendran Nair,
• Jithin Kundalam Kadavath,
• Bindu Krishnan,
• David Avellaneda Avellaneda,
• M. R. Anantharaman and
• Sadasivan Shaji

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1428–1498, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.104

Enhancing the therapeutical potential of metalloantibiotics using nano-based delivery systems

• Alejandro Llamedo,
• Marina Cano,
• Raquel G. Soengas and
• Francisco J. García-Alonso

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1350–1366, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.98

• application of metalloantibiotics is limited by their potential toxicity, instability, and lack of target specificity. Encapsulating metalloantibiotics in drug delivery systems, such as liposomes, nanoparticles, and polymeric carriers, could mitigate these challenges, enhancing their therapeutic index and

• .; Liu, G. Nanoscale 2025, 17, 5605–5628. doi:10.1039/D4NR04774E ]. This review explores the potential of encapsulated metalloantibiotics as a new frontier in antimicrobial therapy. We address the mechanisms by which drug delivery systems can stabilize and direct metalloantibiotics to their biological

• as a strategy to discover new antibiotic drugs [13]. In this context, the gold(I) antirheumatic drug Auranofin (RidauraTM) [14] was evaluated for its antibacterial activity, exerting potent antimicrobial effect against multiresistant strains [15]. The promising antibacterial profile of auranofin

Ferroptosis induction by engineered liposomes for enhanced tumor therapy

• Alireza Ghasempour,
• Mohammad Amin Tokallou,
• Mohammad Reza Naderi Allaf,
• Mohsen Moradi,
• Hamideh Dehghan,
• Mahsa Sedighi,
• Mohammad-Ali Shahbazi and
• Fahimeh Lavi Arab

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1325–1349, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.97

• to high disability and mortality, and the exact mechanisms are still unclear. Current chemotherapy faces challenges, including non-specificity, toxicity to healthy cells, the development of stem-like cells, and the progression of multidrug resistance [1]. Drug resistance is a major obstacle in cancer

• therapy and is closely linked to alterations in cancer metabolism [2][3][4]. Changed metabolic pathways allow cancer cells to grow faster than usual, adapt to restricted nutrient conditions, and develop drug resistance [3]. There is still a gap in the efficacy of various cancer therapies despite numerous

• accumulation of lipid ROS. Ferroptosis clearly differs from necrosis, apoptosis, and autophagy in terms of cellular morphology and function [7]. Recently, studies have indicated that ferroptosis can be utilized for cancer therapy since it effectively eliminates cancer cells and reverses drug resistance [8][9

Better together: biomimetic nanomedicines for high performance tumor therapy

• Imran Shair Mohammad,
• Gizem Kursunluoglu,
• Anup Kumar Patel,
• Hafiz Muhammad Ishaq,
• Cansu Umran Tunc,
• Dilek Kanarya,
• Mubashar Rehman,
• Omer Aydin and
• Yin Lifang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1246–1276, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.92

• Imran Shair Mohammad Gizem Kursunluoglu Anup Kumar Patel Hafiz Muhammad Ishaq Cansu Umran Tunc Dilek Kanarya Mubashar Rehman Omer Aydin Yin Lifang Department of Radiology, City of Hope National Medical Center, 1500 East Duarte Rd., Duarte, California 91010, USA Nanothera Lab, Drug Application and

• utility, biomimetic nanoparticles hold great promise for advancing the field of cancer treatment. Keywords: biomimetic nanoparticles; homotypic binding; nanomaterials; targeted drug delivery; tumor therapy; Introduction Cancer is a complex disease, which involves numerous cells and their crosstalk with

• surrounding environment, including immunosuppression in T cells via PD-1/PD-L1 axis, recruitment of stem cells via CXCR4/CXCL2 chemokine axis, maturation of immune cells via membrane interactions, and various other physical/chemical interactions, uncover the emergence of cell membrane-based drug delivery

Hydrogels and nanogels: effectiveness in dermal applications

• Jéssica da Cruz Ludwig,
• Diana Fortkamp Grigoletto,
• Daniele Fernanda Renzi,
• Wolf-Rainer Abraham,
• Daniel de Paula and
• Najeh Maissar Khalil

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1216–1233, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.90

• - Vila Carli, Guarapuava – PR, Brazil Helmholtz-Zentrum für Infektionsforschung, Inhoffenstrasse 7, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany 10.3762/bjnano.16.90 Abstract Drug delivery systems (DDSs) are an important tool for obtaining medicines with improved physicochemical properties, especially for drugs with

• stability, absorption, and biodistribution impairments. Among the DDSs, we can highlight hydrogels and nanogels, which are easy to obtain, show good biocompatibility, and have several applications in the design of drug carriers for dermal and ocular administration. In this review, we introduce a brief

• concept on hydrogels, underlining compounds such as chitosan and alginate, and methods used for their preparation. Nanogels, with their attractive features, such as high drug encapsulation and penetration enhancer embedding, are also addressed. Finally, the application of these systems in dermal

Investigation of the solubility of protoporphyrin IX in aqueous and hydroalcoholic solvent systems

• Michelly de Sá Matsuoka,
• Giovanna Carla Cadini Ruiz,
• Marcos Luciano Bruschi and
• Jéssica Bassi da Silva

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1209–1215, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.89

• its bioavailability and light absorption capacity will be increased [5]. To overcome this problem, the development of drug delivery systems, such as poloxamer-based ones, has played an important role on the delivery of dyes for PDT [8][9][10]. Poloxamers are triblock copolymers with thermosensitive

• self-assembly of monomers into micelles with a hydrophobic core of polypropylene oxide (PPO) and a hydrophilic corona of polyethylene oxide (PEO), creating an environment suitable for the encapsulation of hydrophobic drugs such as PpIX [15]. These micelles enhance drug solubility, protect against

• aggregation, and improve bioavailability in aqueous media [5][16]. Additionally, at high concentrations, P407 can transition into more complex nanostructured systems, such as hydrogels and lyotropic liquid crystals, providing additional control over drug release and stability. The thermosensitive and self

Piezoelectricity of hexagonal boron nitrides improves bone tissue generation as tested on osteoblasts

• Sevin Adiguzel,
• Nilay Cicek,
• Zehra Cobandede,
• Feray B. Misirlioglu,
• Hulya Yilmaz and
• Mustafa Culha

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1068–1081, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.78

• [30][31]. The piezoelectric property of 2D hBN arises from its noncentrosymmetric structure, supported by these van der Waals interactions [32]. The excellent biocompatibility of hBN makes it attractive for diverse applications, including cosmetics, drug delivery, cancer treatment, orthopedic implants

Soft materials nanoarchitectonics: liquid crystals, polymers, gels, biomaterials, and others

• Katsuhiko Ariga

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1025–1067, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.77

• ][182][183], fuel cells [184][185][186][187][188], batteries [189][190][191][192][193], supercapacitors [194][195][196][197][198], and other energy applications [199][200][201][202][203]. Furthermore, it is employed in environmental remediation [204][205][206][207][208], drug delivery [209][210][211

A calix[4]arene-based supramolecular nanoassembly targeting cancer cells and triggering the release of nitric oxide with green light

• Cristina Parisi,
• Loredana Ferreri,
• Tassia J. Martins,
• Francesca Laneri,
• Samantha Sollima,
• Antonina Azzolina,
• Antonella Cusimano,
• Nicola D’Antona,
• Grazia M. L. Consoli and
• Salvatore Sortino

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1003–1013, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.75

• Cristina Parisi Loredana Ferreri Tassia J. Martins Francesca Laneri Samantha Sollima Antonina Azzolina Antonella Cusimano Nicola D'Antona Grazia M. L. Consoli Salvatore Sortino Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, I-95125 Catania, Italy Istituto di Chimica Biomolecolare

• poorly active unconventional photoactivatable drug molecules [12][13][14] as well as efficient cages to inhibit undesired photodegradation of photosensitive conventional drugs [15]. Nitric oxide (NO) is one of the most extensively studied molecules in the fascinating realm of biomedical sciences. This

• in diameter with a polydispersity index (PI) of ca. 0.4 (inset Figure 1A). This means the sample has a moderate range of particle sizes, however suitable for drug delivery applications. Figure 1B shows the fluorescence emission spectra of a water solution of 1. Similar to the absorption, the spectrum

Supramolecular hydration structure of graphene-based hydrogels: density functional theory, green chemistry and interface application

• Hon Nhien Le,
• Duy Khanh Nguyen,
• Minh Triet Dang,
• Huyen Trinh Nguyen,
• Thi Bang Tam Dao,
• Trung Do Nguyen,
• Chi Nhan Ha Thuc and
• Van Hieu Le

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 806–822, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.61

• structures especially under external sonication and mechanical stimuli. Reversible self-assembly of graphene-based nanosheets in water is essential to many applications, such as adsorption, photocatalysis, biosensing, drug delivery, aqueous paints, and multifunctional coatings [48][49][50]. Figure 6c

Changes of structural, magnetic and spectroscopic properties of microencapsulated iron sucrose nanoparticles in saline

• Sabina Lewińska,
• Pavlo Aleshkevych,
• Roman Minikayev,
• Anna Bajorek,
• Mateusz Dulski,
• Krystian Prusik,
• Tomasz Wojciechowski and
• Anna Ślawska-Waniewska

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 762–784, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.59

• size of the drug for easier swallowing. Simultaneously, all these compounds due to the iron content should exhibit magnetic properties that may potentially turn out to be interesting. Moreover, since all iron deficiency agents are commercial products and are mass produced, their properties can be

• deficiency drugs based on iron sucrose that differ from Venofer® in their manufacturing process, which translates into different final forms of the drug [17][18]. One of them is the diet supplement called Ferisan (Solinea Company, Poland), which is distinguished from Venofer®, in the pill form. Ferisan is a

• ], while peaks I with lower binding energies are most probably related to different numbers of oxygen atoms bound to Si atoms (most likely only two) [96][98]. The correlation of peaks I to SiO should be excluded as the binding energy of the bulk Si line is lower than 100 eV [95]. According to the drug

Serum heat inactivation diminishes ApoE-mediated uptake of D-Lin-MC3-DMA lipid nanoparticles

• Demian van Straten,
• Luuk van de Schepop,
• Rowan Frunt,
• Pieter Vader and
• Raymond M. Schiffelers

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 740–748, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.57

• Demian van Straten Luuk van de Schepop Rowan Frunt Pieter Vader Raymond M. Schiffelers CDL Research, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands 10.3762/bjnano.16.57 Abstract Nanoparticles play a crucial role in drug delivery research. The protein corona that develops on the

• protein corona formation in vitro and prevent bias in LNP development. Keywords: apolipoprotein E; fetal calf serum; heat inactivation; lipid nanoparticle; protein corona; Introduction Nanotechnology has gained a strong foothold in the field of drug delivery, having significant promise to overcome the

• internalization of RNA molecules by target cells [23]. Several LNP encapsulated RNA-based therapeutics have achieved approval by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) [24], including patisiran/Onpattro for the treatment of hereditary transthyretin amyloidosis. Onpattro LNPs are administered

Synthesis of a multicomponent cellulose-based adsorbent for tetracycline removal from aquaculture water

• Uyen Bao Tran,
• Ngoc Thanh Vo-Tran,
• Khai The Truong,
• Dat Anh Nguyen,
• Quang Nhat Tran,
• Huu-Quang Nguyen,
• Jaebeom Lee and
• Hai Son Truong-Lam

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 728–739, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.56

• adsorbents from sustainable, cellulose-based materials derived from agricultural waste. Experimental Materials Tetracycline hydrochloride (97.2%), oxytetracycline dihydrate (98%), and chlortetracycline hydrochloride (94.6%), all sourced from the Institute of Drug Quality Control, Ho Chi Minh City (Vietnam

Efficiency of single-pulse laser fragmentation of organic nutraceutical dispersions in a circular jet flow-through reactor

• Tina Friedenauer,
• Maximilian Spellauge,
• Alexander Sommereyns,
• Verena Labenski,
• Tuba Esatbeyoglu,
• Christoph Rehbock,
• Heinz P. Huber and
• Stephan Barcikowski

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 711–727, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.55

• viability even at high curcumin concentrations. Keywords: antioxidant; cannabidiol; curcumin; drug; food additive; low degradation; nanoparticle; pulsed laser ablation in liquids; solubilization; Introduction Laser synthesis and processing of colloids (LSPC) has become increasingly popular over the last

• extraction methods, exemplified by extraction from coffee powders [10] and alkaloid drug extraction from ground root powder [11]. Initially, LSPC research focused on inorganic materials such as metals [12][13], semiconductors [1], and oxides [14][15], where the particle formation mechanisms are well

• ]. The LFL of lipophilic drugs is of particular interest in improving their dissolution properties and oral absorption. Better dissolution properties and dissolution rates lead to a higher saturation limit, which allows one to reduce the required amount of the drug [38]. However, for sensitive active

Colloidal few layered graphene–tannic acid preserves the biocompatibility of periodontal ligament cells

• Teissir Ben Ammar,
• Naji Kharouf,
• Dominique Vautier,
• Housseinou Ba,
• Nivedita Sudheer,
• Philippe Lavalle and
• Vincent Ball

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 664–677, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.51

• of variation represents a quantitative methodology for evaluating nuclear DNA signal heterogeneity. This analytical approach has demonstrated utility in measuring alterations in DNA compaction following drug treatments or genetic modifications that influence chromatin architecture [43]. PDL cells

Aprepitant-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles: a novel approach to enhance oral bioavailability

• Mazhar Hussain,
• Muhammad Farooq,
• Muhammad Asad Saeed,
• Muhammad Ijaz,
• Sherjeel Adnan,
• Zeeshan Masood,
• Muhammad Waqas,
• Wafa Ishaq and
• Nabeela Ameer

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 652–663, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.50

• analysis. APT-loaded SLNs were prepared by the precipitation method and characterized by physicochemical studies including particle size and zeta potential measurements, drug content, encapsulation efficiency and solubility studies, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron

• microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), in vitro drug release in 0.1 M HCl (pH 1.2) and phosphate-buffered saline (PBS, pH 7.4), and pharmacokinetic studies. The optimal formulation (APT-CD-NP4) containing the highest

• concentration of β-CD showed the highest drug solubility (93.50% ± 3.73%) in PBS (pH 7.4) and drug content (96.75% ± 0.24%); particle size, zeta potential, and polydispersity index of APT-CD-NP4 were 121.1 ± 0.72 nm, −18.8 ± 0.94 mV, and 0.15 ± 0.35, respectively. SEM analysis showed that APT was converted from

A formulation containing Cymbopogon flexuosus essential oil: improvement of biochemical parameters and oxidative stress in diabetic rats

• Ailton Santos Sena-Júnior,
• Cleverton Nascimento Santana Andrade,
• Pedro Henrique Macedo Moura,
• Jocsã Hémany Cândido dos Santos,
• Cauãn Torres Trancoso,
• Eloia Emanuelly Dias Silva,
• Deise Maria Rego Rodrigues Silva,
• Ênio Pereira Telles,
• Luiz André Santos Silva,
• Isabella Lima Dantas Teles,
• Sara Fernanda Mota de Almeida,
• Daniel Alves de Souza,
• Jileno Ferreira Santos,
• Felipe José Aidar Martins,
• Ana Mara de Oliveira e Silva,
• Sandra Lauton-Santos,
• Guilherme Rodolfo Souza de Araujo,
• Cristiane Bani Correa,
• Rogéria De Souza Nunes,
• Lysandro Pinto Borges and
• Ana Amélia Moreira Lira

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 617–636, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.48

• antidyslipidemic properties in vivo [4][5][6]. EOs are volatile components that are sensitive to temperature, light, oxygen, and humidity [7]. Therefore, it is recommended to use them in drug delivery systems, such as nanostructured systems, which are able to guarantee stability and a better therapeutic effect

• exposed to different shear forces [22][23]. The parameters of rheological properties are essential in the classification and characterization of semisolids and fluids, and in the greater understanding of drug release from pharmaceutical forms [22]. Thus, the rheological behavior of M7-EOCF at two

• of MEs is advantageous when taken orally as it facilitates oral application and dose adjustment; it also improves absorption and bioavailability. Additionally, MEs can be administered to humans as self-microemulsifying drug delivery systems (SMEDDSs) delivered in soft gelatin capsules as they are low

Polyurethane/silk fibroin-based electrospun membranes for wound healing and skin substitute applications

• Iqra Zainab,
• Zohra Naseem,
• Syeda Rubab Batool,
• Muhammad Waqas,
• Ahsan Nazir and
• Muhammad Anwaar Nazeer

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 591–612, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.46

• the development of implants, medical devices, and drug delivery systems that solve challenging issues from health to medicine [5]. Because of innovations in tissue engineering, genetic engineering, and nanotechnology, scientists can now see into the innermost functions of living organisms with a level

• ]. Nanofibers are considered promising materials because of their size and structure, making them suitable for drug delivery, tissue engineering, tissue scaffolding, and other biomedical applications [12]. They exhibit distinct chemical and physical properties that distinguish them from macroscale structures

• , SF, cellulose, and collagen, along with their composites and derivatives can be electrospun [58]. Electrospinning has emerged as a versatile technique investigated across various fields, including tissue engineering, drug delivery, filtration, wound dressings, self-cleaning surfaces, biotechnology

Feasibility analysis of carbon nanofiber synthesis and morphology control using a LPG premixed flame

• Iftikhar Rahman Bishal,
• Muhammad Hilmi Ibrahim,
• Norikhwan Hamzah,
• Mohd Zamri Mohd Yusop,
• Faizuan Bin Abdullah,
• I Putu Tedy Indrayana and
• Mohd Fairus Mohd Yasin

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 581–590, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.45

• combustion mode where the fuel and oxidizer are thoroughly mixed before ignition. LPG is a cheap industrial material used as a carbon source to produce carbon nanomaterials [6]. The application of CNFs includes, but is not limited to, energy storage in batteries and supercapacitors, electronics, drug

Nanomaterials in targeting amyloid-β oligomers: current advances and future directions for Alzheimer's disease diagnosis and therapy

• Shiwani Randhawa,
• Trilok Chand Saini,
• Manik Bathla,
• Rahul Bhardwaj,
• Rubina Dhiman and
• Amitabha Acharya

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 561–580, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.44

• amyloid oligomers has garnered significant attention over time, primarily because of three key observations related to drug candidates for AD therapy. These observations are (i) ineffectiveness of plaque-targeting therapies, that is, therapeutic agents that focus solely on the removal of amyloid plaques

• or amyloid fibrils have not demonstrated substantial improvements in patients’ cognitive behaviors; (ii) efficacy of oligomer-targeting drugs, that is, drug candidates that specifically target amyloid-β oligomers (AβOs) have shown greater clinical effectiveness in treating AD patients; and (iii

• early detection and the identification of reliable biomarkers and therapeutic targets. Moreover, the blood–brain barrier (BBB) poses a significant obstacle to effective drug delivery, further hindering the development of successful treatments. Nanomaterials (NMs) offer promising solutions for the early