Rapid controlled synthesis of gold–platinum nanorods with excellent photothermal properties under 808 nm excitation

• Jialin Wang,
• Qianqian Duan,
• Min Yang,
• Boye Zhang,
• Li Guo,
• Pengcui Li,
• Wendong Zhang and
• Shengbo Sang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 462–472, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.37

• conversion efficiency (PCE) due to local surface plasmon resonance (LSPR). Studies on different gold–platinum (Au–Pt) bimetal nanoparticles exhibiting the LSPR effect have provided a new idea for the synthesis of excellent PTAs. But there is no simple and scalable method for the controllable synthesis of Au

• –Pt nanoparticles with adjustable LSPR wavelength range. In this work, the effects of Ag+ and K2PtCl4 on the deposition of Pt on the surface of gold nanorods (AuNRs) were investigated. A fast, precise, and controlled synthesis of dumbbell-like Pt-coated AuNRs (Au@Pt NRs) under mild conditions is

• , especially those with anisotropic structure, such as AuNRs, Au nanocages [5][6], Au nanostars [7][8], Au nanospheres [9][10], and Au nanoshells [11][12], show great potential as PTAs. Particularly, AuNRs, with a high inherent absorption–scattering ratio, simple and controllable synthesis, and high PCE [13

A review on nanostructured silver as a basic ingredient in medicine: physicochemical parameters and characterization

• Gabriel M. Misirli,
• Kishore Sridharan and
• Shirley M. P. Abrantes

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 440–461, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.36

• , triangular plates, hexagonal plates, pyramids, and cubes depending on the synthesis method used, as depicted in Figure 1. Moreover, they all have specific characteristics, both from the physicochemical and biomedical application points of view [33]. The unique chemical and physical properties of AgNPs are

• prophylactic effect) and to inhibit viral replication and budding (i.e, the therapeutic effect) [75][76][110]. In vitro studies reveal that AgNPs can act as inhibitors of viral entry by blocking viral attachment and penetration into cells [109][111][112]. They also inhibit the synthesis of viral negative

• correct separation of the species is necessary to observe whether the toxicity is caused by the Ag+ ions, AgNPs, or by both. More details regarding the toxicity of the AgNPs and methods to separate the species are described in the section “Separation of AgNPs from Ag+” [135]. Synthesis of silver

Solution combustion synthesis of a nanometer-scale Co₃O₄ anode material for Li-ion batteries

• Monika Michalska,
• Huajun Xu,
• Qingmin Shan,
• Shiqiang Zhang,
• Yohan Dall'Agnese,
• Yu Gao,
• Amrita Jain and
• Marcin Krajewski

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 424–431, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.34

• London, London WC1E 7JE, United Kingdom Institute of Fundamental Technological Research, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5B, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland 10.3762/bjnano.12.34 Abstract A novel solution combustion synthesis of nanoscale spinel-structured Co3O4 powder was proposed in this work. The

• current densities between 50 and 5000 mA·g−1. Keywords: anode material; cobalt oxide; lithium-ion battery; solution combustion synthesis; transition metal oxide; Introduction Recently, a considerable research effort regarding new anode materials has been made because the traditional carbonaceous anodes

• conductivity enhancement and sometimes mitigates the impact of volume changes. However, at the same time, it causes a decrease of the Co3O4 capacity. Another strategy is associated with synthesis procedures that allow one to produce nanometer-scale Co3O4 materials with various shapes and morphologies. It has

The impact of molecular tumor profiling on the design strategies for targeting myeloid leukemia and EGFR/CD44-positive solid tumors

• Nikola Geskovski,
• Nadica Matevska-Geshkovska,
• Simona Dimchevska Sazdovska,
• Marija Glavas Dodov,
• Kristina Mladenovska and
• Katerina Goracinova

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 375–401, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.31

• smart nanoscale drug delivery carriers with increased selectivity and multistage targeting capabilities has emerged. Common cancer signatures and the synthesis of ligands with high avidity for the overexpressed cancer cell receptors are a valuable addition to the general targeting concepts. Important

• synthesis of nucleic acids required for DNA replication, while taxanes and vinca alkaloids interfere with the polymerization/depolymerization of the microtubules thus inhibiting mitosis [8]. However, in addition to cancer cells, all of these drugs also affect the normal/healthy tissues with cells that

• simple techniques for the prediction and synthesis of native ligands for specific receptors. Advances in molecular targets for cancer therapy and their implications in nanoscale targeting strategies will be briefly presented in the following part of the article. EGFR is a member of the ErbB family of

Spontaneous shape transition of Mn_xGe_1−x islands to long nanowires

• S. Javad Rezvani,
• Luc Favre,
• Gabriele Giuli,
• Yiming Wubulikasimu,
• Isabelle Berbezier,
• Augusto Marcelli,
• Luca Boarino and
• Nicola Pinto

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 366–374, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.30

• literature for other heteroepitaxial systems. Our study gives experimental evidence for the spontaneous formation of spatially uniform and compositionally homogeneous Mn-rich GeMn nanowires on Ge(111). The reliable and simple synthesis approach allows one to exploit the room-temperature ferromagnetic

Nickel nanoparticle-decorated reduced graphene oxide/WO₃ nanocomposite – a promising candidate for gas sensing

• Ilka Simon,
• Alexandr Savitsky,
• Rolf Mülhaupt,
• Vladimir Pankov and
• Christoph Janiak

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 343–353, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.28

• temperature [32]. The combination of MOS with graphene materials can improve the gas sensing abilities [33][34]. MOS prevent graphene from agglomerating, which leads to a higher specific surface area. Graphene can control the size and morphology of MOS during the synthesis and decreases the resistance of MOS

• the gas response were measured for 3500 ppm and 35,000 ppm acetone. Results and Discussion Ni@rGO synthesis The synthesis of nickel nanoparticles is well known and different methods such as thermal decomposition [44] or reductive hydrogenation [45] are used. Nickel nanoparticles with sizes below 10 nm

• decomposition approach with rGO synthesized from reduced graphite oxide at 400 °C. It is extremely important that the used rGO is thoroughly dried because of the oxyphilic nature of nickel nanoparticles. Therefore, before the nanoparticle synthesis, the rGO was dried using a turbo molecular pump at 5 × 10−7

Doxorubicin-loaded gold nanorods: a multifunctional chemo-photothermal nanoplatform for cancer management

• Uzma Azeem Awan,
• Abida Raza,
• Shaukat Ali,
• Rida Fatima Saeed and
• Nosheen Akhtar

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 295–303, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.24

• treatments. Regardless of the various beneficial properties, GNRs have limitations in clinical applications due to the cytotoxicity of the surfactant cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), which acts as a template in the synthesis process of GNRs [17]. Different polymers can be used to coat GNRs to enhance

• Synthesis of the DOX-loaded GNR nanocomplex In the present study, DOX-conjugated GNRs and hyperthermia were employed as a treatment strategy for HCC cells. First, GNRs were synthesized according to the well-known seed-mediated growth method [25] with a slight modification reported in our previous work [26

• cancer cells. The nanomaterial complex described here will have the capacity for cost-effective upscaling due to ease of synthesis and surface modification, and the tunable drug loading ability. Chemo-photothermal treatment based on nanocomplex systems is an efficient approach for reducing the high dose

Characterization, bio-uptake and toxicity of polymer-coated silver nanoparticles and their interaction with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells

• Sahar Pourhoseini,
• Reilly T. Enos,
• Angela E. Murphy,
• Bo Cai and
• Jamie R. Lead

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 282–294, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.23

• . Cytotoxicity, using LDH and MTS assays and based on exposure concentrations was not significantly different when comparing NPs and Ag ions. Based on differential uptake, AgNPs were more toxic after normalizing toxicity to the amount of cellular Ag uptake. Our data highlights the importance of correct synthesis

• ][32][33][34]. Few, if any, of these studies fully discuss procurement/synthesis, characterization, transformations in exposure media, and bio-uptake and toxicity of NPs at relevant exposure concentrations with appropriate controls. In this study we have used tightly constrained AgNPs, which have been

• /synthesis characterization, to examine the physicochemical transformations of NPs during the exposure time in the exposure medium, and/or to use physiologically relevant Ag concentrations. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the uptake and toxicity of well-characterized AgNPs in primary

Differences in surface chemistry of iron oxide nanoparticles result in different routes of internalization

• Barbora Svitkova,
• Vlasta Zavisova,
• Veronika Nemethova,
• Martina Koneracka,
• Miroslava Kretova,
• Filip Razga,
• Monika Ursinyova and
• Alena Gabelova

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 270–281, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.22

• inhibition of de novo synthesis [52]. While both F and N blocked the internalization of cholera toxin (ChT) into A549 cells, no effect of MBCD on ChT uptake was observed. Similar results were obtained in J774A.1 macrophages [48]. In contrast, Rothen-Rutishauser et al. [50] did not find any inhibition of ChT

• of new nanotechnology-based pharmaceuticals and their targeting to specific intracellular locations. Experimental Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (MNPs) Synthesis, coating, and physicochemical characteristics of the spherical magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles with magnetite (Fe3O4) core and

Gold(I) N-heterocyclic carbene precursors for focused electron beam-induced deposition

• Cristiano Glessi,
• Aya Mahgoub,
• Cornelis W. Hagen and
• Mats Tilset

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 257–269, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.21

• grown. The growth of the deposited pillars was studied as a function of the deposition time, and some larger cube-shaped deposits were made to determine the composition of the deposited material using energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectrometry. Experimental Synthesis and characterization All chemicals

• decompose the ligands under the formation of nitrogen- and chlorine-containing organic fragments, hopefully leading to more volatile by-products, compared to precursors with purely carbon-based ligands. Furthermore, the synthesis aimed for a series of thermally robust compounds that can be straightforwardly

• handled and tested. Synthesis The chemical precursors to the selected NHC ligands are salts of their respective imidazolium or triazolium cations. The imidazolium salts were obtained starting from the unsubstituted 4,5-chloroimidazole through two sequential alkylation reactions using the selected alkyl

A review on the biological effects of nanomaterials on silkworm (Bombyx mori)

• Sandra Senyo Fometu,
• Guohua Wu,
• Lin Ma and
• Joan Shine Davids

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 190–202, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.15

• for over 18 h exhibited a hyperlipidemic phenotype and the administration of pioglitazone or metformin improved the glucose tolerance in hyperlipidemic silkworms. The downregulation of the PARK7/DJ-1 gene generated p-translucent (op) silkworms by reducing xanthine oxidase synthesis and elevating body

• 78.79 MPa, respectively). The crystalline structures of BSA-Au NCs silk were unchanged with an enhanced crystallization of the silk proteins. Zhang et al. [172] focused on the impact of glucose-coated Ag NPs on the silkworm larvae diet and on silk protein synthesis. Silk fibers exposed to glucose-coated

• Ag NPs exhibited a smooth surface with significant changes in the silk diameter. Ag NPs concentrations of 0.20% and 0.02% were reported to promote the synthesis of silk proteins, improve the mechanical properties of the silk fibers, and to improve the antibacterial properties of the silk. Figure 2

Toward graphene textiles in wearable eye tracking systems for human–machine interaction

• Ata Jedari Golparvar and
• Murat Kaya Yapici

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 180–189, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.14

• technologies. Materials and Methods Synthesis of graphene textiles and electrode preparation The developed process to synthesize conductive graphene textiles is based on a low-cost and scalable, three-step approach in which conformal layers of graphene were formed on various fabrics including nylon, polyester

A review on the green and sustainable synthesis of silver nanoparticles and one-dimensional silver nanostructures

• Sina Kaabipour and
• Shohreh Hemmati

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 102–136, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.9

• but not limited to renewable energy, electronics, biosensors, wastewater treatment, medicine, and clinical equipment. The properties of silver nanostructures, such as size, size distribution, and morphology, are strongly dependent on synthesis process conditions such as the process type, equipment

• type, reagent type, precursor concentration, temperature, process duration, and pH. Physical and chemical methods have been among the most common methods to synthesize silver nanostructures; however, they possess substantial disadvantages and short-comings, especially compared to green synthesis

• methods. On the contrary, the number of green synthesis techniques has been increasing during the last decade and they have emerged as alternative routes towards facile and effective synthesis of silver nanostructures with different morphologies. In this review, we have initially outlined the most common

Fusion of purple membranes triggered by immobilization on carbon nanomembranes

• René Riedel,
• Natalie Frese,
• Fang Yang,
• Martin Wortmann,
• Raphael Dalpke,
• Daniel Rhinow,
• Norbert Hampp and
• Armin Gölzhäuser

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 93–101, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.8

• synthesis route is well established and the resulting CNM has reactive amino head groups that can be functionalized in subsequent experiments. The functionalization of the CNM is necessary to immobilize the PM patches by chemical complex formation after deposition. In a first step, simple drop-casting

The role of gold atom concentration in the formation of Cu–Au nanoparticles from the gas phase

• Yuri Ya. Gafner,
• Svetlana L. Gafner,
• Darya A. Ryzkova and
• Andrey V. Nomoev

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 72–81, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.6

• 10.3762/bjnano.12.6 Abstract The synthesis of bimetallic nanoparticles need to be controlled in order to obtain particles of a desired size, spatial structure, and chemical composition. In the synthesis of the Cu–Au nanoparticles studied here, nanoparticles can be obtained through either chemical or

• physical methods, each of which has its own drawbacks. Although it is very difficult to achieve the required target chemical composition of nanoparticles during chemical synthesis, their size can be stabilized quite well. In turn, physical synthesis methods mainly allow to maintain the required chemical

• recent years, a wide range of chemical methods have been successfully implemented for the synthesis of Cu–Au nanosystems of various percentages, the use of which led to the production of Cu–Au nanoparticles with spherical [4], pentagonal [5], rod-like [6][7], and cubic [8] shapes. Nanocrystals of a gold

ZnO and MXenes as electrode materials for supercapacitor devices

• Ameen Uddin Ammar,
• Ipek Deniz Yildirim,
• Feray Bakan and
• Emre Erdem

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 49–57, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.4

• high power density as well as due to the potential to further increase the energy density. Supercapacitors may act as batteries in electrochemical performance tests. The choice of the materials, their morphology, dimension, and synthesis technique, as well the synergy with the other components of the

• and 3D materials will be of utmost benefit to the interested community. Review ZnO as electrode material for supercapacitors Zinc oxide (ZnO) is a highly defective semiconductor material, regardless of its synthesis route, that has a large bandgap energy (Eg) at room temperature. However, defect types

• deconvoluted into several peaks and each maximum of these peaks is assigned to one type of emission. Sometimes the emission energies are matched with defect formation energies calculated using first-principle density functional theory. This approach has many problematic issues. First, of all, synthesis routes

Effect of different silica coatings on the toxicity of upconversion nanoparticles on RAW 264.7 macrophage cells

• Cynthia Kembuan,
• Helena Oliveira and
• Christina Graf

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 35–48, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.3

• synthesis phase (S), in which the DNA is replicated; and the second gap phase (G2), in which the cell continues to grow further and to perform processes that are necessary for mitosis [74]. Both silica-coated samples show a significant increase in the G0/G1 phase compared to control cells (not treated with

• the intended application [38]. Hence, it opens up not only a variety of possibilities for the (bio)-functionalization of UCNPs [52], but also it provides a simple approach to make UCNPs less cytotoxic. Experimental All synthesis procedures were performed with standard glass equipment. Before use, the

• reaction vessels were cleaned with hydrofluoric acid (8 vol %) and repeatedly rinsed with water. The nanoparticles were redispersed using an ultrasonic bath operating at 860 W, 35 kHz (Sonorex RK512H, Bandelin). Ultrapure water (filter size = 0.22 μm, R = 18.2 MΩ·cm, Millipore) was used for all synthesis

Bio-imaging with the helium-ion microscope: A review

• Matthias Schmidt,
• James M. Byrne and
• Ilari J. Maasilta

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 1–23, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.1

• abstract of LeTourneau et al. on rhizobacterial biofilms in the proceedings of Microscopy and Microanalytics 2015 [89]. On wheat roots, they grew a phenazine-1-carboxylic acid (PCA)-producing fluorescent pseudomonad strain and an isogenic mutant impaired in the synthesis of PCA. The formation of the

Free and partially encapsulated manganese ferrite nanoparticles in multiwall carbon nanotubes

• Saja Al-Khabouri,
• Salim Al-Harthi,
• Toru Maekawa,
• Mohamed E. Elzain,
• Ashraf Al-Hinai,
• Ahmed D. Al-Rawas,
• Abbsher M. Gismelseed,
• Ali A. Yousif and
• Myo Tay Zar Myint

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 1891–1904, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.170

• manganese ferrite nanoparticles of a similar size. The hybrid synthesis method (partially encapsulated manganese ferrite nanoparticles/MWCNT system) enables the simultaneous formation of nanoparticles inside the tube cavities and attached to the external surface of the tubes. Therefore, it allows for the

• investigation of possible effects associated with the location of these nanomaterials. Experimental Synthesis The free manganese ferrite nanoparticles were prepared by adding, dropwise, 100 mL of a solution containing 0.10 M of Fe3+ and 0.05 M of Mn2+, to 100 mL of a boiling solution containing 0.45 M of sodium

Towards 3D self-assembled rolled multiwall carbon nanotube structures by spontaneous peel off

• Jonathan Quinson

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 1865–1872, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.168

• ]. However, support-free 3D structures typically require extra synthesis steps. “Sponges” or “cages” can be produced by freeze-drying preformed CNTs [10] or by etching template materials [11]. A way to tune CNT properties further is to introduce other elements in the carbon network (e.g., nitrogen [12][13

• in CNTs is achieved by tuning experimental parameters during CNT synthesis [16]. To date, CNTs with so-called intratubular junctions have been used exclusively for electronic applications due to their p–n junction behavior [17][18][19]. The potential of CNTs with junctions to serve as building blocks

• change within CNTs and to optimize the formation of complex CNT structures, the possibility to couple aerosol-assisted chemical vapor deposition (AACVD) [20] and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) was explored [16]. For detailed synthesis and characterization protocols, including control experiments, please

Piezotronic effect in AlGaN/AlN/GaN heterojunction nanowires used as a flexible strain sensor

• Jianqi Dong,
• Liang Chen,
• Yuqing Yang and
• Xingfu Wang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 1847–1853, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.166

• based on a new AlGaN/AlN/GaN NW structure, which has shown great application potential in several fields, including wearable integrated circuits, health-monitoring devices, and artificial intelligence. Experimental Synthesis of the epitaxial structure The epitaxial structure used in this study was grown

Unravelling the interfacial interaction in mesoporous SiO₂@nickel phyllosilicate/TiO₂ core–shell nanostructures for photocatalytic activity

• Bridget K. Mutuma,
• Xiluva Mathebula,
• Isaac Nongwe,
• Bonakele P. Mtolo,
• Boitumelo J. Matsoso,
• Rudolph Erasmus,
• Zikhona Tetana and
• Neil J. Coville

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 1834–1846, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.165

• nanostructures are attractive candidates for photocatalysis owing to their tunable physicochemical properties, their interfacial contact effects, and their efficacy in charge-carrier separation. This study reports, for the first time, on the synthesis of mesoporous silica@nickel phyllosilicate/titania (mSiO2

• [24][25]. One method to maximize the SiO2–TiO2 interaction is via the synthesis of core–shell nanostructures or nanocomposites [18][19][26][27]. Ikeda et al. [26] reported an improved photodecomposition of acetic acid by using a titania core@hollow silica shell nanostructured catalyst. Similarly, Ren

• optical properties The three-step synthesis involved the generation of the SiO2 spheres, the reaction of the surface of SiO2 with Ni to give a NiPS-covered SiO2 spheres, and the addition of TiO2 to create the final product. SEM images show the spherical morphology of the mSiO2 and mSiO2@NiPS

Nanocasting synthesis of BiFeO₃ nanoparticles with enhanced visible-light photocatalytic activity

• Thomas Cadenbach,
• Maria J. Benitez,
• A. Lucia Morales,
• Cesar Costa Vera,
• Luis Lascano,
• Francisco Quiroz,
• Alexis Debut and
• Karla Vizuete

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 1822–1833, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.164

• . The phase purity of the product depends on the type of carboxylic acid used in the synthesis of the metal precursors, the type of solvent in the wet impregnation process, and the calcination procedure. By using tartaric acid in the synthesis of the metal precursors, acidified 2-methoxyethanol in the

• particles tend to have lower bandgaps than larger particles [28][29][30]. The synthesis of pure single-phase BiFeO3 is very challenging, due to the volatile character of bismuth at temperatures higher than 400 °C, which leads to the formation of undesired phases such as α-Fe2O3, α- and β-Bi2O3 or Bi2Fe4O9

• synthesis of pure-phase BiFeO3 is the in situ formation of Fe/Bi mixed metal complexes by using different complexing agents such as carboxylic acids. During the calcination process the carboxylate ligands in the Fe/Bi complexes decompose to CO2 and BiFeO3 is formed [29]. This synthetic technique requires

Nanomechanics of few-layer materials: do individual layers slide upon folding?

• Ronaldo J. C. Batista,
• Rafael F. Dias,
• Ana P. M. Barboza,
• Alan B. de Oliveira,
• Taise M. Manhabosco,
• Thiago R. Gomes-Silva,
• Matheus J. S. Matos,
• Andreij C. Gadelha,
• Cassiano Rabelo,
• Luiz G. L. Cançado,
• Ado Jorio,
• Hélio Chacham and
• Bernardo R. A. Neves

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 1801–1808, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.162

• of the folds in the suspended graphene [17]. After the successful synthesis of graphene in 2004 [1], many other 2D materials have been produced [12][18][19][20][21][22][23]. The investigation of their bending stiffness as a function of thickness, interlayer adhesion energy, and adhesion energy on

Electron beam-induced deposition of platinum from Pt(CO)₂Cl₂ and Pt(CO)₂Br₂

• Aya Mahgoub,
• Hang Lu,
• Rachel M. Thorman,
• Konstantin Preradovic,
• Titel Jurca,
• Lisa McElwee-White,
• Howard Fairbrother and
• Cornelis W. Hagen

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 1789–1800, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.161

• deposits upon electron exposure, and (vi) deposition rate and deposit composition. We now report an investigation of these practical aspects of Pt(CO)2Cl2 and Pt(CO)2Br2 in the context of their potential use in FEBID of Pt nanostructures. Experimental Synthesis Pt(CO)2Cl2. The compound was synthesized via

• Pt(CO)2Cl2 and Pt(CO)2Br2, respectively [21]. A major motivation for the synthesis of these precursors was the possibility that the halogen ligand could be removed by post deposition e-beam exposure; however, e-beam exposure has been previously shown to remove the halogen only from the surface of