Recent progress in enhancing built-in electric fields of perovskite solar cells via junction engineering

• Tong Xiao and
• Ke Xu

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 602–621, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.42

• migration remain, with issues such as Pb–I bond rupture still persisting. To tackle these, strategies like chemical anchoring and gradient encapsulation have been suggested, such as using phosphate molecules to bond materials to the perovskite and adding thin Al2O3 layers to block water and oxygen

Towards targeted drugs and next generation of nanomedicines

• Anna Salvati,
• Silvia Giordani and
• Wolfgang J. Parak

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 598–601, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.41

• future development. Bioavailability is an important factor for pharmaceutical agents. Here nanoparticles have the great advantage that their physicochemical properties can be largely tailored. A hydrophobic drug can be made more water soluble by linking it to a hydrophilic nanoparticle. However, as with

Probing tribological evolution in atomically thin MoS₂ at different scales

• Xingzhong Zeng and
• Miao Zhang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 586–597, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.40

• sequentially in acetone, ethanol, and deionized water via ultrasonic cleaning and then dried with high-purity nitrogen. Sample characterization MoS2 layer thickness was determined via AFM (MFP-3D, Asylum Research) and Raman spectroscopy (inVia Reflex, Renishaw). AFM topographic images were acquired in tapping

Laser–material interactions in liquids for the synthesis of nanomaterials: current status and perspectives

• Carlos Doñate Buendia,
• Bilal Gökce and
• Leonid V. Zhigilei

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 571–575, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.38

• nanoparticle generation in picosecond laser ablation in liquids [40], the elucidation of processes responsible for the formation of periodic surface structures on Cr targets irradiated by femtosecond pulses in water [41], and the integration of X-ray probing with simulations to study the transition from

• melting to explosive fragmentation of Au nanoparticles under picosecond laser irradiation in water [42]. Further advances in LSPC can be facilitated by data-driven machine learning approaches, which provide new pathways for optimizing synthesis parameters toward targeted size, composition, phase, and

• ]. Alternatively, employing organic solvents instead of water provides opportunities to produce carbon-encapsulated core−shell nanostructures [49] and enables control over oxidation [50], surface chemistry [51], and transferability between solvents [52]. The versatility of LSPC in terms of materials, solvents, and

Synthesis of Cu–Mo/TiO₂ and Co–Mo/TiO₂ photocatalysts for the efficient degradation of organic pollutants in water

• Ilse Acosta,
• Brenda Zermeño,
• Edgar Moctezuma,
• Luis F. Garay-Rodríguez and
• Isaías Juárez-Ramírez

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 559–570, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.37

• the complete degradation of ketoprofen and 90% of mineralization. It was determined that HO· radicals play an important role in the oxidation reactions. Keywords: co-doping; photocatalysis; titanium dioxide; water remediation; Introduction Water is an essential part of every living entity

• . Unfortunately, water quality is negatively impacted by the increasing population, industrial operations, and agricultural activities. Therefore, it is essential to develop technologies to conserve and remediate contaminated water. A significant environmental challenge in water remediation is the presence of

• organic contaminants. These products are frequently detected in aquatic bodies due to human use and include pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and industrial chemicals, which significantly degrade drinking water quality [1]. To achieve the efficient removal of emerging pollutants, advanced oxidation processes

Advances in nanotechnology applied to natural products

• Douglas Dourado,
• Fábio Rocha Formiga,
• Éverton do Nascimento Alencar and
• Franceline Reynaud

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 555–558, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.36

• formulated as oil-in-water (O/W) or water-in-oil (W/O) systems [3]. These carriers have been widely used to deliver natural products, particularly essential or fixed oils and their isolated constituents, for a wide range of applications. In this thematic issue, contributions examine nanoemulsion-based

• stable, isotropic systems composed of oil, water, surfactants, often with a co-surfactant, and typically requiring higher surfactant–co-surfactant concentrations than nanoemulsions [12]. As carriers for essential oils, fixed oils, and other lipophilic natural metabolites, microemulsions can improve

• , broadening the use of natural products in areas such as biological product development, immunization, and vector control [21][22]. In addition, polymeric micellar systems, such as poloxamer-based systems, have been explored to improve the solubility and dispersion of poorly water-soluble natural compounds

Electrochemical determination of ciprofloxacin using a MIL-101/reduced graphene oxide-modified electrode

• Nguyen Quang Man,
• Nguyen Ngoc Nghia,
• Nguyen Vinh Phu,
• Vo Thi Khanh Ly,
• Le Lam Son,
• Pham Khac Lieu,
• Le Thi Hong Phong,
• Nguyen Dinh Luyen and
• Dinh Quang Khieu

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 541–554, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.35

• [17]. MIL-101(Cr) was prepared through a hydrothermal reaction by dissolving terephthalic acid (H2BDC, 1.66 g) and chromium(III) nitrate nonahydrate (Cr(NO3)3·9H2O, 4.0 g) in 48 mL of deionized water, followed by the addition of 2 mL of hydrofluoric acid. The mixture was transferred to a Teflon-lined

• stainless-steel autoclave and heated at 200 °C for 8 h [18]. After cooling to room temperature, a highly crystalline green chromium terephthalate powder (MIL-101(Cr)) was collected by filtration, thoroughly washed with deionized water, and dried before use. The MIL-101/rGO composites were synthesized

• following a reported procedure with slight modifications [18]. Briefly, dried MIL-101(Cr) (0.1 g) was dispersed in 20 mL of deionized water and ultrasonicated for 30 min to obtain a homogeneous suspension. Subsequently, a predetermined amount of GO was added to the MIL-101 suspension under continuous

Upcycling agroindustrial waste into graphene oxide supports for gold nanoparticles: toward sustainable nanomaterials

• Juan Marcos Castro-Tapia,
• Selene Acosta,
• Hiram Joazet Ojeda-Galván,
• Elsie Evelyn Araujo-Palomo,
• Edgar Giovanni Villabona-Leal and
• Mildred Quintana

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 489–504, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.32

• ; hybrid nanocomposites; plasmonic nanomaterials; surface functionalization; Introduction Graphene oxide (GO), due to its unique physicochemical properties, is widely explored regarding a range of applications, including sensors, water purification, and energy storage and conversion [1][2][3][4][5]. GO is

• mixture was magnetically stirred at 50 °C for 12 h under reflux. The oxidation process was stopped by adding 3 mL of 30% H2O2. The resulting mixture was sequentially washed with deionized water, 30% HCl, 99% ethanol and, finally, again with deionized water until reaching a pH of 5. Eventually, GO was

• stirred at 200 rpm for 12 h at room temperature. Afterwards, the mixture was centrifuged at 7000 rpm for 10 min to precipitate Agro-GO and separate the supernatant containing dissolved iron ions. The solid was washed with deionized water until the pH reached 5. Finally, purified Agro-GO was vacuum-dried

Defects and defect-mediated engineering of two-dimensional materials: challenges and open questions

• Arkady V. Krasheninnikov,
• Matthias Batzill,
• Anouar-Akacha Delenda,
• Marija Drndić,
• Chris Ewels,
• Katharina J. Franke,
• Mahdi Ghorbani-Asl,
• Alexander Holleitner,
• Ado Jorio,
• Ute Kaiser,
• Daria Kieczka,
• Hannu-Pekka Komsa,
• Jani Kotakoski,
• Manuel Längle,
• David Lamprecht,
• Yun Liu,
• Steven G. Louie,
• Janina Maultzsch,
• Thomas Michely,
• Katherine Milton,
• Anna Niggas,
• Hanako Okuno,
• Joshua A. Robinson,
• Marika Schleberger,
• Bruno Schuler,
• Alexander Shluger,
• Kazu Suenaga,
• Kristian S. Thygesen,
• Richard A. Wilhelm,
• E. Harriet Åhlgren and
• Carla Bittencourt

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 454–488, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.31

• . Moreover, 2D materials are known to oxidize when exposed to oxygen gas and water [52][53]. The reaction of molecular oxygen with the surfaces of 2D materials has attracted significant interest [54]. The reaction barrier for O2 dissociation on a TMD surface is almost halved comparing a pristine surface with

• applications like water desalination or gas purification. The last example illuminates how a more complex 1D defect in a 2D material can be created with good spacial precision and scalability, making the defect suitable for application. When two 2D crystals mirrored along a line are joined, the twin crystal

Nanocarrier-integrated multilayer films produced by 3D printing for improved skin adhesion and curcumin photostability

• Thayse Viana de Oliveira,
• Ana Paula Farias Leão,
• Júlia Leão,
• Cesar Liberato Petzhold and
• Ruy Carlos Ruver Beck

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 440–453, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.30

• aqueous phase under moderate stirring (the temperature and agitation speed parameters were the same as those of the organic phase). The aqueous phase was composed of 0.077 g of polysorbate 80 and 54 mL of ultrapure water. Acetone was removed under reduced pressure, and the resulting suspensions were

• potential The z-average particle size and the polydispersity index were measured by dynamic light scattering using a Zetasizer® Nano ZS (ZEN 3600, Malvern Instruments, USA). For this analysis, 10 µL of the C-NC formulation was diluted in 5 mL of ultrapure water (previously filtered through a 0.45 µm

• mixed in a porcelain mortar at a ratio of 3.5:1 (w/w) Na-CMC/alginate, with the addition of glycerine, and the resulting blend was used as the printing ink. For the top layer, Na-CMC was mixed with glycerine and solubilised in purified water in a porcelain mortar until gel formation was achieved

Nanoinformatics: spanning scales, systems and solutions

• Iseult Lynch,
• Diego S. T. Martinez,
• Kunal Roy and
• Georgia Melagraki

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 423–427, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.28

• are challenging to experimentally measure. Using computational descriptors commonly used in nano-QSAR models, such as the potential energy of surface atoms and the water–NP surface energy, the model predicts that Pt NPs are more toxic than Au NPs, based on their surface properties, which drive

Biomimetic nanoparticles in cancer photodynamic therapy: a review of targeted delivery systems and therapeutic outcomes

• Valentina I. Gorbacheva,
• Alexey S. Grabovoy,
• Polina S. Marukhina,
• Anastasiia O. Syrocheva and
• Ekaterina P. Kolesova

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 396–422, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.27

• loading capacity. For instance, melanin-based nanoparticles loaded with Ce6 (loading efficiency ≈ 30%) showed enhanced biocompatibility and water solubility, with synergistic photodynamic and photothermal effects under imaging guidance [156]. Another strategy involves chemically attaching porphyrin-based

Eco-efficient materials for agricultural crops based on a mineral rich in MOR- and HEU-type zeolites

• Esperanza Yamile de la Nuez-Pantoja,
• Inocente Rodríguez-Iznaga,
• Gerardo Rodríguez-Fuentes,
• Vitalii Petranovskii,
• Ariel Martínez García,
• José Juan Calvino Gámez and
• Daniel Goma Jiménez

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 381–395, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.26

• by XRD) and other qualities of these zeolites, highlighting their ion-exchange and adsorption properties for nutrient release and reversible water retention. This is essential for the use of this material as a slow-release fertilizer that efficiently provides nutrients for the agroecological

• consequent drag and infiltration under the action of irrigation water and rain [1]. This problem, which is also associated with volatilization and emission of NO, NH3, and other gases into the atmosphere, poses severe risks to the environment and causes serious damage to human health [2]. Minerals rich in

• formed by silicon and aluminium tetrahedra connected through their vertices by bridging oxygen atoms. This arrangement forms a network of interconnected channels and cavities with a large surface area, where water molecules and mobile cations (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+) are located to neutralize the excess

Polycatecholamine nanocoatings on stainless steel: the effect on attachment of human fibroblasts and platelets

• Paulina Trzaskowska,
• Ewa Rybak,
• Maciej Trzaskowski,
• Kamil Kopeć,
• Jakub Krzemiński,
• Rafał Podgórski,
• Hatice Genc,
• Mehtap Civelek and
• Iwona Cicha

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 365–380, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.25

• potential to serve as a biomedical coating. In a previous study from our groups, coatings derived from ʟ-tyrosine, ʟ-phenylalanine, and 2-phenylethylamine were shown to substantially reduce water contact angles by 50–80%, indicating a pronounced increase in surface hydrophilicity [12]. Thus, we now focused

• oxidation reaction due to the limited solubility of ʟ-tyrosine in water. Thus, we used a supersaturated ʟ-tyrosine solution, to ensure that the oxidized part of the substrate is replaced by a fresh portion dissolved from the suspension [12]. The resulting SS-PDA and SS-PTYR samples were sterilizable, non

• 316L discs were pretreated by rinsing their surfaces with acetone (Chempur, Poland) and a “piranha solution” containing sulfuric acid (Chempur, Poland) and 30% H2O2 (Sigma-Aldrich, Germany) at a volume ratio of 1:1. The discs were then rinsed in deionized water, followed by immersion in the

Interconnection morphology effects on the radio frequency response of carbon nanotube sponges

• Manuela Scarselli,
• Javad Rezvani,
• Zeno Zuccari,
• Mattia Scagliotti and
• Simone Tocci

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 343–351, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.23

• porosity, low weight, good mechanical response, and good conductivity [25]. The properties of CNSs have been exploited in many different applications that include mechanical transducers [26], water filtration [27], and others [28]. In this paper, we tested our synthesized CNSs as active material for the

• of as-grown and ethanol-treated CNS samples, a small peak appears at 534 ± 0.1 eV, attributed to water that easily adheres to the tubes outer wall due to air exposure. Table S2 in Supporting Information File 1 gives a summary of the functional group content obtained from the C1 s and O1 s core level

Beam shaping techniques for pulsed laser ablation in liquids: Unlocking tunable control of nanoparticle synthesis in liquids

• Sergio Molina-Prados,
• Nadezhda M. Bulgakova,
• Alexander V. Bulgakov,
• Jesus Lancis,
• Gladys Mínguez Vega and
• Carlos Doñate-Buendia

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 309–342, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.22

• shape and fundamentally describe the effect of beam shaping, in contrast to a parameter like pulse energy, which remains constant if the spatial beam profile is modified. When the laser enters the liquid, it can be absorbed, that is, water and most of the organic solvents absorb radiation for

• by a local modification of the refractive index of a material due to the propagation of an intense laser beam due to the Kerr effect [59][112]. Self-focusing is a power-dependent effect and occurs in water at a threshold laser power of the order of 1 MW that corresponds, for a typical irradiation

• . These effects facilitate multiphoton absorption and avalanche ionisation processes, effectively lowering the breakdown threshold of the liquid compared to NP-free conditions. This is shown by the fluence dependence of the generation rate of hydroxyl radicals during optical breakdown in water in the

Advancing nanolithography: a comprehensive review of materials for local anodic oxidation with AFM

• Matteo Lorenzoni

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 275–291, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.19

• patterns through a biased conductive tip. The process relies on the formation of a nanoscale water meniscus [14] at the tip–sample interface, enabling electrochemical reactions that oxidize the substrate, creating protruding nanostructures mainly composed of oxide. Unlike other techniques requiring complex

• preparation steps, LAO enables direct chemical modification, with precise control of the tip–sample separation during the writing process. This is typically achieved in contact mode, where the tip apex is in direct contact with the substrate, ensuring capillary condensation and the formation of a stable water

• ], making it the preferred technique for large-scale, uniform coatings. However, LAO remains advantageous for high-resolution, direct-write patterning at the nanoscale, despite its limited scalability. Furthermore, the resulting LAO oxide can be easily etched by mild acid solutions [40] or water [24]. A

Durable antimicrobial activity of fabrics functionalized with zeolite ion-exchanged nanomaterials against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli

• Perla Sánchez-López,
• Kendra Ramirez Acosta,
• Sergio Fuentes Moyado,
• Ruben Dario Cadena-Nava and
• Elena Smolentseva

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 262–274, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.18

• leaves of some plants are water- or dust-repellent, and these repellent properties can be transferred to textiles by modifying the components involved in these mechanisms [24]. Among the physicochemical methods used for fabric functionalization with nanomaterials are coatings, electrospinning, assembling

• preparation The pad–dry–cure method was used for fabric impregnation [30]. Prior to the experiment, the bramante fabrics containing 50% cotton and 50% polyester with a density of 150 threads (Parisina Company, Mexico) were washed with detergent (Alconox, Sigma Aldrich) and deionized water. Finally, the

• interval of XRD analysis was 2θ = 5–80°, with a step size of 0.01° and 1 s of measure time for each step. The durability of the finish was assessed by washing the modified textile five times. The fabrics were washed using deionized water and the detergent Alconox. Mechanical action was applied using

Comparative study on 3D morphologies of delignified, single tracheids and fibers of five wood species

• Helen Gorges,
• Felicitas von Usslar,
• Cordt Zollfrank,
• Silja Flenner,
• Imke Greving,
• Martin Müller,
• Clemens F. Schaber,
• Chuchu Li and
• Stanislav N. Gorb

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 239–250, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.16

• biomechanics and water management. Keywords: 3D models; delignification; tracheid; wood; X-ray nanotomography; Introduction Wood fibers in hardwood and tracheids in softwood play a crucial role in the structure and function of vascular plants, particularly in water conduction and mechanical support [1][2

• ]. They are especially important in gymnosperms, where they serve as primary conduits for water transport, whereas in angiosperms, they function alongside vessel elements, contributing to both axial and lateral water movement by providing strength of the tissue [3][4]. Tracheids are specialized cells that

• are elongated, hollow, and tapered at both ends, forming an interconnected system that facilitates the transport of water and nutrients from the roots to the aerial parts of the plant [3]. Depending on the species and function, conifer tracheids are generally narrow, with varying diameters (8–80 µm

Gold nanoparticle-decorated reduced graphene oxide as a highly effective catalyst for the selective α,β-dehydrogenation of N-alkyl-4-piperidones

• Brenda Flore Kenyim,
• Mihir Tzalis,
• Marilyn Kaul,
• Robert Oestreich,
• Aysenur Limon,
• Chancellin Pecheu Nkepdep and
• Christoph Janiak

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 218–238, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.15

• . Synthesis of Au@SiW9/AC, Au@SiW9/rGO, and Au@SiW9/CB The DP method is the most widely used procedure to support gold nanoparticles on metal oxides [6]. The synthesis involves dissolving the POM salt (SiW9) and the gold precursor (KAuCl4) in water in an ice bath, dispersing the carbon material (AC, rGO, CB

Micro- and nanoscale effects in biological and bioinspired materials and surfaces

• Thies H. Büscher,
• Rhainer Guillermo Ferreira,
• Manuela Rebora and
• Stanislav N. Gorb

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 214–217, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.14

• envelope of seeds supports seed germination, protection from pathogens and predators, and attachment to various surfaces for dispersal. This three-dimensional polysaccharide network is capable of absorbing large amounts of water to function either as an efficient lubricant or a strong adhesive depending on

• its water content, and bears potential for direct industrial applications or inspiration for novel technical adhesives. Some contributions highlighted the explanatory power of computational analysis of biological functional materials. Here, biological phenomena were investigated based on

Time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry imaging of contaminant species in chemical vapour deposited graphene on copper

• Barry Brennan,
• Vlad-Petru Veigang-Radulescu,
• Philipp Braeuninger-Weimer,
• Stephan Hofmann and
• Andrew J. Pollard

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 200–213, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.13

• remove the top surface layer of the foil and reduce surface roughness (EP) or a wet back side oxidation process to introduce oxygen into the Cu foil prior to growth (BO). The electro-polishing solution was prepared by mixing H3PO4 (85 wt % in H2O, Sigma Aldrich) in a 7:3 ratio with DI water. The cathode

• (Cu foil) area was chosen to be four times larger than the anode. The distance between cathode and anode was 4 cm. After electro-polishing the Cu foil was rinsed in a water jet for 5 min and then dried with N2 after dipping in isopropyl alcohol (IPA). The oxidation of the Cu foil was performed in a 30

• % H2O2 solution (Fisher Scientific) heated to 100 °C for 300 s. The Cu foil was gently placed on the H2O2 solution such that the Cu foil floated, and the top side was not exposed to hydrogen peroxide. Subsequently, the Cu foil was rinsed in DI water and IPA and dried with flowing N2. The surface

Safe and sustainable by design with ML/AI: A transformative approach to advancing nanotechnology

• Georgia Melagraki

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 176–185, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.11

• , engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) have been employed for environmental applications, such as water purification and pollutant removal, addressing some of the most pressing ecological challenges [4][5]. Nanotechnology has significant applications in defence [6], particularly in the development of lightweight

• in air and water under high temperature and pressures and following release and uptake by biota [9]. Therefore, LCA must account for the entire lifecycle of these materials, from production and usage for which industrial materials can often be under extreme conditions (high temperatures, pressures

• detailed picture of how ENMs move through – and possibly accumulate in – soil, water, and air. By enabling stakeholders to test “what-if” scenarios, such as accidental spills or long-term usage in consumer products, digital twins enhance predictive accuracy and decision-making regarding waste management

Influence of surface characteristics on the in vitro stability and cell uptake of nanoliposomes for brain delivery

• Dushko Shalabalija,
• Ljubica Mihailova,
• Nikola Geskovski,
• Andreas Zimmer,
• Otmar Geiss,
• Sabrina Gioria,
• Diletta Scaccabarozzi and
• Marija Glavas Dodov

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 139–158, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.9

• set to 1.38 and 0.010, respectively. Water was set as the dispersant, the temperature was set to 25 °C, while the attenuation was set to 11. The 'general purpose (normal distribution)' was chosen as the analysis model. High-resolution automated electrophoresis of the adsorbed proteins onto

• diluted 200-fold in milli-Q water and denatured at 95 °C for 5 min in reducing condition by adding 3.5 µL of 1 M dithiothreitol (DTT) buffer solution to 100 µL of each sample buffer. After cooling, samples were loaded on the microfluidic chip for electrophoresis, in accordance with the instructions from

Development and in vitro evaluation of liposomes and immunoliposomes containing 5-fluorouracil and R-phycoerythrin as a potential phototheranostic system for colorectal cancer

• Raissa Rodrigues Camelo,
• Vivianne Cortez Sombra Vandesmet,
• Octavio Vital Baccallini,
• José de Brito Vieira Neto,
• Thais da Silva Moreira,
• Luzia Kalyne Almeida Moreira Leal,
• Claudia Pessoa,
• Daniel Giuliano Cerri,
• Maria Vitória Lopes Badra Bentley,
• Josimar O. Eloy,
• Ivanildo José da Silva Júnior and
• Raquel Petrilli

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 97–121, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.7

• water. Given that PBS from the original formulation remains associated with the vesicles and maintains their colloidal stability, no additional saline was required during dilution. The measurements were performed in triplicate at 25 °C using an optical 4 mW HeNe at a wavelength of 633 nm. The results (n

• and immunoliposomes were first stabilized by adding 5% glutaraldehyde for 2 h [25]. After fixation, the formulations were diluted at a ratio of 1:750 in deionized distilled water (ddH2O). A 3.0 µL aliquot of the diluted sample was deposited onto a freshly cleaved mica substrate, followed by vacuum

• occurs passively during the formation of vesicles. For water-soluble drugs, such as those used in this study, loading occurs through interactions with the intraliposomal aqueous core. For hydrophilic drugs, encapsulation efficiency tends to be low, so the drug/lipid ratio is usually lower, between 10 and