Development and in vitro evaluation of liposomes and immunoliposomes containing 5-fluorouracil and R-phycoerythrin as a potential phototheranostic system for colorectal cancer

• Raissa Rodrigues Camelo,
• Vivianne Cortez Sombra Vandesmet,
• Octavio Vital Baccallini,
• José de Brito Vieira Neto,
• Thais da Silva Moreira,
• Luzia Kalyne Almeida Moreira Leal,
• Claudia Pessoa,
• Daniel Giuliano Cerri,
• Maria Vitória Lopes Badra Bentley,
• Josimar O. Eloy,
• Ivanildo José da Silva Júnior and
• Raquel Petrilli

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 97–121, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.7

• lipophilic substances. Furthermore, liposomes can also act as a protein delivery system, reducing enzymatic degradation of proteins and enhancing their stability and their permeability through cell membranes [7]. Immunoliposomes provide many advantages by surface functionalization with targeting biomolecules

• the molecules was determined as a percentage based on the mass of the liposomes obtained after lyophilization, according to Equation 2 [23]. In vitro release 2.3.4.1 In vitro release of 5-FU. To evaluate the drug release profile, 250 μL of each sample was diluted in 7 mL of phosphate buffer (pH 7.4

• , consequently, cytotoxicity [29]. For this, the cells were plated onto 96-well plates with 7 × 104 cells per well at 37 °C in 5% CO2. After 24 h, the cells were treated with the formulations: liposome (HSPC/Chol/DSPE–PEG2000; 70:20:5; 50 mg of HSPC) and immunoliposome (HSPC/Chol/DOPE/DSPE–PEG–MAL; 64:10:22.2

Functional surface engineering for cultural heritage protection: the role of superhydrophobic and superoleophobic coatings – a comprehensive review

• Giuseppe Cesare Lama,
• Marino Lavorgna,
• Letizia Verdolotti,
• Federica Recupido,
• Giovanna Giuliana Buonocore and
• Bharat Bhushan

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 63–96, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.6

• non-destructive [7]. The papers discussing monitoring and the evaluation of the damages to monuments or landscapes, by means of topographic surveys and successive numerical simulations, are the most cited in this area [8][9][10][11][12]. Probably, one of the most detailed examples is represented by

• imparting long-lasting hydrophobicity, reducing water uptake, and maintaining dimensional and biological stability of wood, even under UV exposure and outdoor conditions (Figure 7). To do so, nano/sub-microlignin (NL), derived from beechwood via a one-step organosolv process, was used as a filler and

Microscopic study of the intermediate mixed state in intertype superconductors

• Vyacheslav D. Neverov,
• Alexander V. Kalashnikov,
• Andrey V. Krasavin and
• Alexei Vagov

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 57–62, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.5

• complex, irregular patterns that cannot be attributed to type-I or type-II behavior [5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]. These patterns are referred to as intermediate mixed state (IMS) and are characterized by the coexistence of Meissner domains and vortex clusters, chains, or fragmented lattices

Subdigital integumentary microstructure in Cyrtodactylus (Squamata: Gekkota): do those lineages with incipiently expressed toepads exclusively exhibit adhesive setae?

• Philipp Ginal,
• Yannick Ecker,
• Timothy Higham,
• L. Lee Grismer,
• Benjamin Wipfler,
• Dennis Rödder,
• Anthony Russell and
• Jendrian Riedel

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 38–56, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.4

• surfaces, either by employing dry adhesion via microstructures, or wet adhesion, which is additionally supported by secretions [1][2][3][4][5]. In lizards, subdigital adhesive microstructures facilitating dry adhesion evolved independently in anoles, some skinks, and multiple times in geckos [3][6][7][8

• this context, the proposed function of the mediolateral expansion and distoproximal shortening typical of lamellae and scansors is to achieve a limited range of stalk length upon each scale [7][49], promoting, through their regimented gradation, simultaneous attachment and detachment of all setae on

• explained less than 7% each. Although PCs with an eigenvalue smaller than 1 are generally considered to be non-relevant, a minimum of two components are necessary to properly visualise the results. Therefore, the first two PCs were used for subsequent visualization. For PC1, almost all traits except

Reduced graphene oxide paper electrode for lithium-ion cells – towards optimized thermal reduction

• Agata Pawłowska,
• Magdalena Baran,
• Stefan Marynowicz,
• Aleksandra Izabela Banasiak,
• Adrian Racki,
• Adrian Chlanda,
• Tymoteusz Ciuk,
• Marta Wolczko and
• Andrzej Budziak

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 24–37, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.3

• specific surface area, and low bulk density [3][4]. The role of rGO in electrode materials can be considered in two ways. It can be applied as a conductive additive, improving transport properties and, as a result, enhancing capacity [5]. It can also be the active material itself [6][7]. To mention just a

• eV (0.1 eV step) pass energy in the analyzer and the photoelectron take-off angle at 45°. In order to maintain a constant sample surface potential, a dual beam charge compensation with 7 eV Ar+ ions and 1 eV electrons was used. The aliphatic carbon C 1s line at 285.0 eV was used as a charge reference

• D peak [45]. The peak denoted as B (also denoted as D') is said to be related to Stone–Wales defects (5-7-7-5 rings), 5-8-5 rings [21], and other irregularities in the carbon rings. The D+G peak is of graphene/graphitic origin [21]. Upon reduction, the A and D'' peaks increased, suggesting an

Competitive helical bands and highly efficient diode effect in F/S/TI/S/F hybrid structures

• Tairzhan Karabassov,
• Irina V. Bobkova,
• Pavel M. Marychev,
• Vasiliy S. Stolyarov,
• Vyacheslav M. Silkin and
• Andrey S. Vasenko

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 15–23, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.2

• superconducting electronics [2][3][4]. So far, the superconducting diode effect has been reported in many different systems, including Josephson junctions [5][6][7][8][9][10][11], junction-free devices [12][13][14][15][16][17], superconducting microbridges [18][19], and other systems [20][21]. There have been

• comprises several equations, namely, the Usadel equations in the superconducting (S) and normal (N) parts (Equation 6 and Equation 7), two self-consistency equations (Equation 8) in each superconducting region S1 and S2, and the boundary conditions at the S1/N, N/S2 interfaces and at the free edges of the

Quantitative estimation of nanoparticle/substrate adhesion by atomic force microscopy

• Aydan Çiçek,
• Markus Kratzer,
• Christian Teichert and
• Christian Mitterer

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 1–14, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.1

• [5] and physicochemical properties [6]. Among these properties, particle adhesion (which is determined by the interaction between the NP and the substrate) and the interface formed between NPs and substrate [7][8] play a decisive role. Particularly when the contact area between NPs and the substrate

• × 10−7 mbar. Ar was introduced as a sputtering gas, keeping a constant flow rate of 40 sccm. Sputtering was carried out at a constant current of 200 mA (≈70 W) applied to the target. The sputtered atoms start to form NPs and to grow in the aggregation zone, where the aggregation length was adjusted to

• NPs with desired masses. An AC voltage, V = ±250 V, with a frequency of 4.19 kHz, a DC voltage, U = +2.5 V, and a U/V ratio of 0.02 were used. In the filter mode, the QMF was set to a NP diameter of 7 nm. Then, the NPs pass through a mesh grid with +21.7 V grid bias voltage, enabling to determine the

Internal 3D temperature mapping in biological systems using ratiometric light-sheet imaging and lipid-coated upconversion nanothermometers

• Dannareli Barron-Ortiz,
• Enric Pérez-Parets,
• Rubén D. Cadena-Nava,
• Emilio J. Gualda,
• Jacob Licea-Rodríguez,
• Juan Hernández-Cordero,
• Pablo Loza-Álvarez and
• Israel Rocha-Mendoza

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2306–2316, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.159

• from dysregulated metabolism (i.e., the Warburg effect) [3][4] and chaotic vasculature that impairs heat dissipation [5][6]. These factors can create thermal gradients of 0.5–2.0 °C between tumors and healthy tissue, with even greater differences at the subcellular level [7][8][9]. Consequently, the

• thin-film hydration method based on Rojas-Gutierrez’s procedure [52]. Based on the size distribution and concentration of the nanoparticles (10 mg·mL−1), a lipid layer was formed with DOPS, cholesterol, and DMPC at a molar ratio of 64:29:7. The three lipids were dispersed in chloroform and mixed with

Terahertz-range on-chip local oscillator based on Josephson junction arrays for superconducting quantum-limited receivers

• Fedor V. Khan,
• Lyudmila V. Filippenko,
• Andrey B. Ermakov,
• Mikhail Yu. Fominsky and
• Valery P. Koshelets

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2296–2305, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.158

• Fedor V. Khan Lyudmila V. Filippenko Andrey B. Ermakov Mikhail Yu. Fominsky Valery P. Koshelets Kotel’nikov Institute of Radio Engineering and Electronics of RAS, 11/7 Mokhovaya st., Moscow, 125009, Russian Federation Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, 9 Institutskiy per., Dolgoprudny

• constants, respectively, and f is the frequency of the incoming radiofrequency (RF) signal [4][5]. Such receivers are used as a sensitive element of the state-of-the-art terahertz (THz) range ground-based (ALMA [6], APEX [7]) and space-based (Hershel [8], Millimetron [9]) telescopes. The ground and space

• Vgap of the tunnel junctions (see Figure 4, where Vgap ≈ 2.7 mV, which corresponds to the gap frequency of niobium films ≈650 GHz). A possible solution to address this problem is the CPW with a smaller gap width Wgap (see the inset in Figure 7). As can be seen from Figure 7, with a decreasing Wgap the

Improving magnetic properties of Mn- and Zn-doped core–shell iron oxide nanoparticles by tuning their size

• Dounia Louaguef,
• Ghouti Medjahdi,
• Sébastien Diliberto,
• Klaus M. Seemann,
• Thomas Gries,
• Joelle Bizeau,
• Damien Mertz,
• Eric Gaffet and
• Halima Alem

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2285–2295, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.157

• properties of the nanoparticles [6]. A significant amount of research has focused on CoFe2O4 as a shell material to enhance the magnetic properties of core–shell nanoparticles due to its high coercivity and magnetic anisotropy [7]. The formation of CoFe2O4 shells on Fe3−δO4 cores has been shown to increase

• magnetic performance due to their reduced surface spin disorder [7]. Polyhedral NPs exhibit higher magnetic saturation, less spin canting, and higher SAR values than spherical NPs. For instance, Kasparis et al. demonstrated that polyhedral Zn0.4Fe2.6O4 NPs exhibited SAR values more than double those of

• mL) was added to precipitate the nanoparticles. The resulting black solid was collected by centrifugation (10,000 rpm, 10 min), washed twice with ethanol, and redispersed in toluene (10 mL) [7]. Synthesis of polyhedral core–shell nanoparticles The polyhedral Zn0.4Fe2.6O4 nanoparticles were coated

Visualizing nanostructures in supramolecular hydrogels: a correlative study using confocal and cryogenic scanning electron microscopy

• Shaun M. Smith,
• Ferdinando Malagreca,
• Jacqueline Hicks,
• Giuseppe Mantovani,
• David B. Amabilino,
• Christopher Parmenter and
• Lluïsa Pérez-García

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2274–2284, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.156

• ideal for mimicking biological environments, yet these same properties pose major challenges for morphological characterization [6][7]. In particular, conventional electron microscopy often requires dehydration, which risks collapsing the delicate network, while optical methods are typically diffraction

• visualization of gel morphology (Figure 7). By contrast, the DPP-BC@Gel displayed a well-defined and highly resolved fibrous morphology using both CLSM and cryo-SEM. The strong fluorescence emission of DPP-BC enabled clear CLSM imaging without the need for sample compression, allowing for visualization of fibre

Geometry-controlled engineering of the low-temperature proximity effect in normal metal–superconductor junctions

• Munisa A. Tomayeva,
• Vyacheslav D. Neverov,
• Andrey V. Krasavin,
• Alexei Vagov and
• Mihail D. Croitoru

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2265–2273, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.155

• electrons from the normal side scatter into the superconductor, suppressing the superconducting order parameter near the interface [5][6][7]. In the normal region, the absence of intrinsic attractive electron–electron interaction causes Cooper pairs to break up beyond a characteristic length scale, namely

• superconducting correlations in the NM is a hallmark of the proximity effect [14][15][16]. The pair correlations continuously decrease from their bulk value deep inside the superconductor, leak into the normal material, and eventually vanish at a distance much larger than ξn far inside the NM [7][17][18]. The

• spatial dependence of the superconducting pair correlations is characterized by the pair amplitude F(z), which varies on both sides of the interface [7][8]. The proximity effect in normal metal–superconductor (NS) junctions has been thoroughly studied through experimental [19][20][21] and theoretical

Chiral plasmonic nanostructures fabricated with circularly polarized light

• Tian Qiao and
• Ming Lee Tang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2245–2264, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.154

• to treat morning sickness in pregnant women. One of its enantiomers was found to have sedative effects, while the other was identified as teratogenic, leading to tragic consequences, including over 10,000 severe birth defects in children [4][5][6][7][8]. Promoting the separation and detection of

Optical bio/chemical sensors for vitamin B₁₂ analysis in food and pharmaceuticals: state of the art, challenges, and future outlooks

• Seyed Mohammad Taghi Gharibzahedi and
• Zeynep Altintas

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2207–2244, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.153

• derived products cannot provide adequate amounts of active VB12 for the human body, the supplementation of plant products such as breakfast cereals and nondairy milk is considered a possible dietary strategy for preventing its deficiency among vegetarians and vegans [2][6][7]. The deficiency of VB12 can

• + concentrations from 1.0 × 10−9 to 3.0 × 10−7 g/mL and an LOD of 4.4 × 10−10 g/mL with 2.3% RSD [105]. Andrade et al. designed a flow–batch methodology paired with a large-area silicon photodiode instead of a photomultiplier tube, resulting in a convenient and automated luminometer for CL analysis. In this

Electromagnetic study of a split-ring resonator metamaterial with cold-electron bolometers

• Ekaterina A. Matrozova,
• Alexander V. Chiginev,
• Leonid S. Revin and
• Andrey L. Pankratov

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2199–2206, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.152

• Ekaterina A. Matrozova Alexander V. Chiginev Leonid S. Revin Andrey L. Pankratov Nizhny Novgorod State Technical University n.a. R.E. Alekseev, MininStreet, 24, Nizhny Novgorod, 603155, Russia Institute for Physics of Microstructures of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Akademicheskaya Street, 7

• , enabling operation in a wide frequency range from gigahertz frequencies to X-rays [6][7][8] due to a normal-metal absorber. CEBs offer several advantages over other types of receivers such as transition edge sensors [9][10][11]. These advantages include their micrometer-scale size, which facilitates direct

• increase in the absorbed power (Figure 5). Figure 5 shows the AFC of the SRR metamaterial with a different number of elements. For the large-scale design (period P = 86 μm, rings: dout,1/din,1 = 80/70 μm, dout,2/din,2 = 40/30 μm), doubling the number of elements increases the absorbed power by about 7

Ultrathin water layers on mannosylated gold nanoparticles

• Maiara A. Iriarte Alonso,
• Jorge H. Melillo,
• Silvina Cerveny,
• Yujin Tong and
• Alexander M. Bittner

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2183–2198, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.151

• properties on particle size and shape has been demonstrated for particle sizes in the 1–100 nm range and on biological interfaces [7]. Limited biocompatibility and high tendency to aggregate in solution inspired new mechanisms of particle biofunctionalization with proteins, lipids, or carbohydrates. Coupling

• high and the shape cannot be identical (hemagglutinin is roughly a triangular 7 nm prism of 15 nm length), the size is in the typical NP range, and a dense coating with oligomannoside should mimic surface physics. Accordingly, we note that the adsorption of AuNPs on surfaces would mimic the survival of

• -AuNPs. In both cases, the NP surface charge in water at pH ~7 was approx. −20 mV. The isoelectric point of carboxylate PEG-capped particles is ~2.5; hence, around pH 7, they should exhibit a negative ZP. This is also compatible with a low carboxylate content, as citrate-capped AuNPs (with a higher

Hartree–Fock interaction in superconducting condensate fractals

• Edward G. Nikonov,
• Yajiang Chen,
• Mauro M. Doria and
• Arkady A. Shanenko

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2177–2182, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.150

• ]. Nevertheless, the HF potential cannot be neglected in the presence of external fields [4], such as impurity potentials [5][6], quantum confinement in nanoscale superconductors [7], and potential barriers at interfaces [8]. Such external fields break the translational invariance, which is the condition for the

• the quasiparticle states in ascending energy order. In our study, we employ the open-boundary conditions [5][8][22] for the quasiparticle wavefunctions uν(i) and vν(i), which corresponds to the physical scenario of electrons being quantum-confined within the chain. When using Equation 5 and Equation 7

• the entire procedure is repeated until convergence is achieved. The calculation is considered converged when the relative changes in the order parameter and the HF field are below 10−7. To model quasicrystal superconducting properties, as the first step, we consider a finite Fibonacci sequence

Missing links in nanomaterials research impacting productivity and perceptions

• Santosh K. Tiwari and
• Nannan Wang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2168–2176, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.149

• acceleration after the discovery of fullerene by Kroto and co-workers in 1985 and witnessed an even more rapid surge following the discovery of graphene and the award of the Physics Nobel Prize in 2010 [6][7]. Graphene is often referred to as a “wonder material” due to its seemingly infinite potential in

• capital by training engineers specialized in nanotechnology, while nurturing interdisciplinary research to drive fundamental discoveries. (7) Integration of artificial intelligence, machine learning, and digital twins can accelerate materials discovery, predict safety and performance, and guide scale-up

Microplastic pollution in Himalayan lakes: assessment, risks, and sustainable remediation strategies

• Sameeksha Rawat,
• S. M. Tauseef and
• Madhuben Sharma

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2144–2167, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.148

• to MP pollution [4][7][8][9]. MPs enter these ecosystems due to glacier melting, tourism, agricultural runoff, and inadequate waste management. Anchar Lake and Dal Lake in Kashmir, for instance, exhibit high MP levels owing to household waste and touristic activities [10]. Recreational activities and

• key mechanism in remote lakes besides direct input [7]. Groundwater modeling methods have been instrumental in describing the transport and fate of contaminants, including MPs, in subsurface environments. Numerical methods such as MODFLOW coupled with transport methods such as MT3DMS and RT3D are

• climates represent a promising direction for future trials. 7 Ecotoxicological impact and risk assessment MP pollution of high-altitude ecosystems is a new issue with significant ecological and health effects. Because of low temperature, high levels of UV irradiation, and slow biodegradation rates, MPs

Electron transport through nanoscale multilayer graphene and hexagonal boron nitride junctions

• Aleksandar Staykov and
• Takaya Fujisaki

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2132–2143, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.147

• sites and hinders the electron mobility [7]. In addition, zigzag and armchair edges in graphene nanoribbons will open the bandgap and create trapping sites. Thus, small graphene nanoribbons will show higher electrical resistance compared to larger nanoribbons and infinite two-dimensional sheets. The in

• defects in two-dimensional graphene, that is, N-substitution of carbon atoms and Stone–Wales defects [7]. Nitrogen substitution leads to three distinct states, namely, pyridinic, pyrrolic, and graphitic [14]. While pyridinic and pyrrolic nitrogen involves graphene edges, the graphitic nitrogen can be seen

• as a bulk defect. In this work, we deal with periodic graphene models, and we consider only graphitic nitrogen substitutions. The graphitic nitrogen substitution in graphene changes its properties from a zero-bandgap semiconductor to metallic character and decreases its work function [7]. Stone–Wales

Quality by design optimization of microemulsions for topical delivery of Passiflora setacea seed oil

• Daniel T. Pereira,
• Douglas Dourado,
• Danielle T. Freire,
• Dayanne L. Porto,
• Cícero F. S. Aragão,
• Myla L. de Souza,
• Guilherme R. S. de Araujo,
• Ana Maria Costa,
• Wógenes N. Oliveira,
• Anne Sapin-Minet,
• Éverton N. Alencar and
• Eryvaldo Sócrates T. Egito

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2116–2131, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.146

• solubilization capacity, ability to enhance dermal permeation, and cost-effectiveness make microemulsions attractive carriers compared with other delivery systems [6][7]. Nevertheless, conventional microemulsions typically require high concentrations of surfactants, which may raise safety concerns such as

• of the physicochemical properties and interactions of their constituents [7][9]. In this context, the quality by design (QbD) framework provides a systematic and scientifically grounded approach for pharmaceutical formulation development. QbD emphasizes predefined quality objectives, product and

• effects of OPS concentration, the surfactants mixture ratio (Smix), and Smix concentration on the formation of a microemulsified system with desirable hydrodynamic diameter and transparency (Table 7). Initially, a full factorial design (23) with three central points was employed to explore the

Rapid synthesis of highly monodisperse AgSbS₂ nanocrystals: unveiling multifaceted activities in cancer therapy, antibacterial strategies, and antioxidant defense

• Funda Ulusu,
• Adem Sarilmaz,
• Yakup Ulusu,
• Faruk Ozel and
• Mahmut Kus

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2105–2115, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.145

• study is the first to investigate the cytotoxic effects of these NCs on human breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7), colon cancer cell lines (HT-29), and fibroblast cell lines (L929). Additionally, the antibacterial properties of the NCs against gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis) and

• , particularly on cancer cell lines (MCF-7 and HT-29), in a dose-dependent manner over a 24 h period. These findings highlight the potential of the NCs as anticancer agents. Furthermore, the synthesized NCs demonstrated potent antibacterial properties against the tested microorganisms and notable antioxidant

• from antibacterial activity to tumor therapy activity [5][6][7]. The escalating global concern regarding antimicrobial resistance presents a considerable threat to public health. Researchers are persistently exploring alternative strategies to address this pressing issue and the critical demand for

Toward clinical translation of carbon nanomaterials in anticancer drug delivery: the need for standardisation

• Michał Bartkowski,
• Francesco Calzaferri and
• Silvia Giordani

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2092–2104, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.144

• energy sectors (Figure 1). NMs have seen use as antimicrobial agents [1], catalysts [2], bioimaging agents [3][4][5][6], magnetic particle imaging agents [7], nanofluids [8], antiviral agents [9], photothermal convertors [10], and in environmental remediation [11]. Topically, the biomedical applications

Calibration of piezo actuators and systems by dynamic interferometry

• Knarik Khachatryan and
• Michael Reichling

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2086–2091, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.143

• Knarik Khachatryan Michael Reichling Institut für Physik, Universität Osnabrück, Barbarastr. 7, 49076 Osnabrück, Germany 10.3762/bjnano.16.143 Abstract To achieve precise measurements of small displacements in non-contact atomic force microscopy, it is crucial to control the position of moving

• microscopy (NC-AFM) operation in an ultrahigh-vacuum (UHV) environment at low temperature and has been developed tremendously over the last three decades [7][8][9][10][11][12]. In frequency-modulated NC-AFM, the cantilever is kept at oscillation with constant amplitude, yielding an interferometric signal

• interferometer, various voltages are applied to the fiber tube piezo, and, after each step of voltage change, the cantilever excitation voltage is varied from 1 V to 7 V in steps. For each step, the interferometer signal is analyzed to extract the oscillation amplitude A corresponding to the respective voltage

Multifrequency AFM integrating PeakForce tapping and higher eigenmodes for heterogeneous surface characterization

• Yanping Wei,
• Jiafeng Shen,
• Yirong Yao,
• Xuke Li,
• Ming Li and
• Peiling Ke

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2077–2085, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.142

• interacting intermittently with the sample surface. By monitoring and controlling the cantilever’s amplitude and phase, topographical and phase images can be generated, providing insights into material properties and enabling the differentiation of regions or components within heterogeneous samples [7][8][9