Nanoglasses: a trail towards uncharted regions of vitreous materials and their properties?

• Gerhard Wilde and
• Horst Hahn

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 1047–1062, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.72

• tens of nanometres. Given a thickness of the glass–glass interfaces of the order of a few nanometres, it is expected that different structural arrangements exist within the grains in comparison to the glass–glass interfaces; this has been confirmed recently by so-called fluctuation electron microscopy

• a transmission electron microscope (TEM), so that projection artefacts that are inherent in the analysis of powder-compacted nanoglasses can be avoided. Figure 3a presents a scanning electron microscopy (SEM) overview of the columnar nanoglass thin films, highlighting their overall structural

• . Further confirmation of these distinct phases is provided by the cross-sectional high-angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy (HAADF-STEM) image in Figure 3c, which differentiates the glass grains and the glass–glass interface regions based on contrasting dark and bright areas

Vibration-induced dynamic structural superlubricity on MoS₂/Au(111) under ultrahigh vacuum

• Shuyu Huang,
• Yiming Song,
• Antoine Hinaut,
• Gema Navarro-Marín,
• Antonio Cammarata,
• Ernst Meyer and
• Thilo Glatzel

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 1039–1046, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.71

• phononic friction model, reveal that torsional vibrations reduce energy barriers and promote transitions between atomic sites. This strategy provides a universal and reversible approach for active friction control at the nanoscale. Keywords: atomic force microscopy (AFM); dynamic structural superlubricity

Influence of an external electric field on the catalytic CO oxidation of nanoscaled CeO₂ and its La³⁺ and Gd³⁺ congeners

• Parastoo Jamshidi,
• Silvio Heinschke and
• Jörg J. Schneider

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 1028–1038, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.70

• Information File 1, Figures S20–S24). All cerium oxide nanoparticles are strongly aggregated and form dense strongly corrugated films with an agglomerated particle size of about 50 nm in scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (Supporting Information File 1, Figure S25). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and

• high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) reveal highly crystalline spherical, slightly faceted nCeO2 and 5% doped-nCeO2 with a diameter of around 15 nm (Figure 1a–c). The observed d-spacings are characteristic of nCeO2 (0.31 nm), Gd3+–nCeO2 (0.31 nm), and La3+–nCeO2 (0.29 nm) (Figure 1d

Synthesis and characterization of RF-sputtered ZnTe/Cu_2−xTe thin films for solar cell applications

• Gerardo Arreola Jardón,
• Susana Meraz Dávila,
• Claudia Elena Pérez García,
• Aime Margarita Gutiérrez Peralta and
• Sergio Joaquín Jiménez Sandoval

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 1016–1027, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.69

• produced only minor lattice modifications, while higher Cu and O contents promoted the formation of Cu2−xTe secondary phases, as confirmed by Raman spectroscopy, grazing-incidence X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. Optical measurements showed a significant reduction in infrared

• . Vibrational and structural surface properties Figure 4 shows Raman spectra and a scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of the CuZnTeO film grown at 300 °C with a nominal Cu and O concentration of 3 atom %. The SEM image reveals an irregular surface morphology characterized by agglomerate formation with non

Ultrasonic irradiation in the synthesis of nanohydroxyapatite: a chemically friendly technique for improving hemocompatibility and antibiofilm applications

• Juan Mendoza Turmero,
• Cristina Parra Pantoja,
• Marcos Sabino Gutiérrez,
• Milagro Fernández-Delgado,
• Claudia Alvarado-Castillo,
• Damarys Soto Gil,
• María E. Gomes Gomes,
• Yony Gutiérrez Barrios and
• Daniel Suárez Arteaga

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 991–1015, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.68

• quantitative analysis of particle size was conducted using field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and BET surface area measurements. These findings, along with their corresponding statistical evaluations, are presented and extensively discussed in section “Field emission scanning electron

• microscopy and particle size determination via the BET method” (see below Table 6), confirming the nanometric control achieved through the sonochemical process [56][57]. Regarding the reactions in the W/ETOH mixture, rhombohedral calcite formation (space group R3c) was confirmed by a well-defined signal at

• only undergoes transformations leading to its decomposition at temperatures above 1000 to 1300 °C; this promotes the formation of other biocompatible phosphate species, such as tetracalcium phosphate and tricalcium phosphate [77]. Field-emission scanning electron microscopy and particle size

Materials challenges in solid-state sensors for continuous monitoring of ions in water

• Maryam Darestani-Farahani and
• Peter Kruse

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 935–973, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.66

Enhanced erosion resistance and radiation stability of WC–WO₃ nanocomposite films under 100 keV Kr⁺ ion irradiation

• Shristi Bist,
• Parswajit Kalita,
• Ratnesh K. Pandey,
• Sejal Shah,
• Richa Krishna,
• Umapathy G. R.,
• Sunil Ojha and
• Devesh K. Avasthi

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 922–934, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.65

• experimental sputtering trends. Furthermore, preferential sputtering of lower-Z elements (C and O) was observed in both material systems. Glancing incidence X-ray diffraction analysis revealed post-irradiation grain growth in WC–WO3 films, while scanning electron microscopy results show morphological changes

• , Netherlands) in the 2θ range from 20° to 80°. Scanning electron microscopy measurements of pristine and irradiated S1 films were performed using a MIRA Tescan II SEM at a high voltage of 25 kV using detector working in secondary-emission mode. Results and Discussion Phase and compositional studies of the

Supramolecular one-dimensional conducting nanofibers from a C₃-symmetric tetrathiafulvalene derivative

• Yoko Tatewaki,
• Fumiya Hirose,
• Sadafumi Nishihara,
• Tomoyuki Akutagawa,
• Takayoshi Nakamura and
• Tsuyoshi Minami

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 872–881, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.63

• measurements The structures formed on mica substrates were observed using an atomic force microscopy (AFM) system (Bruker Multi Mode 8). Measurements were performed in non-contact mode using a silicon cantilever with a spring constant of approximately 0.8 N·m−1. Optical spectra UV–vis absorption spectra were

• nanofibers from C3-symmetric MeS-TTF-Ts and the (MeS-TTF-Ts)(F4TCNQ)3 charge-transfer complex In order to form conductive fibers using MeS-TTF-Ts, it was necessary to identify suitable conditions for controlling the formation of supramolecular structures. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) observations of cast

• marked differences in the observed morphologies. In addition to AFM observations, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) measurements were performed for representative samples deposited on HOPG substrates. Representative SEM images are provided in Supporting Information File 1 (Figures S2–S4). The

He⁺ FIBID-fabricated 3D AFM tip architectures: an exploratory study of hollow pillars, helices, and spirals

• Alba Arroyo-Fructuoso,
• Ana Galet,
• Gregor Hlawacek and
• Rosa Córdoba

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 863–871, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.62

• , Germany 10.3762/bjnano.17.62 Abstract Atomic force microscopy (AFM) relies strongly on tip geometry and mechanical integrity for stable and reproducible surface measurements. Here, we present an exploratory study of tungsten–carbon (W–C) AFM tips with complex three-dimensional (3D) architectures

• examined by electron microscopy before and after AFM use. The main degradation modes were geometric deformation of the apex or shaft and mechanical fracture, most frequently at the tip–cantilever interface. While a few structures remained operational through repeated measurement cycles, others failed

• required. Keywords: 3D-printed tips; AFM tips; beam induced nanomanufacturing; focused ion beam induced deposition (FIBID); helium ion microscope; nanohelix; nanopillar; nanospiral; scanning tip microscopy; surface topography; tungsten carbide; Introduction The atomic force microscope (AFM) is a

Sustainable fabrication of 2D-based devices through reuse of substrates with microfabricated electrodes

• Ying Zhang,
• Yigit Sozen,
• Esteban Zamora-Amo,
• Thomas Pucher,
• Nuria Jiménez-Arévalo,
• Zdenek Sofer,
• Yong Xie and
• Andres Castellanos-Gomez

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 818–827, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.58

• ), enabling the removal of 2D materials without damaging the electrodes. Electrical measurements, Raman analysis, and Kelvin probe force microscopy measurements collectively confirm the feasibility of repeatedly reusing the same pre-patterned chip, showing that the cleaned regions exhibit no detectable Raman

• adhesive residues were removed from the patterned region, leaving a pristine SiO2/Si surface (Figure 1d). The insets in Figure 1c and Figure 1d provide high-magnification optical microscopy images. Before cleaning, the interconnected network of MoS2 flakes is visible, whereas after treatment, the surface

• surface in three states, namely, pristine electrode, electrode after roll-to-roll mechanically exfoliated MoS2 transfer, and electrode after NMP cleaning. Figure 4a–c shows optical microscopy images of the corresponding regions, with the dashed outlines indicating the areas selected for Raman mapping. For

Glycerol photoelectrochemical oxidation reaction at carbon nitrides/BiVO₄ materials

• Charles Garcia da Cunha,
• Isabelle M. D. Gonzaga,
• Cristian Hessel,
• Izadora F. Reis,
• Ivo F. Teixeira,
• Lucia H. Mascaro and
• Elton Sitta

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 806–817, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.57

• acetylacetonate at 500 °C for 2 h. The CN/BiVO4 heterojunctions presented bandgap energy values, Eg, similar to pure BiVO4. X-ray diffraction analysis also revealed that the BiVO4 phase was not altered by the presence of the CN. However, scanning electron microscopy analysis coupled to energy-dispersive X-ray

• acquired from 10° to 80° at a rate of 2°·min−1 with a step size of 0.02°. Morphological features and elemental composition were determined by field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FEG-SEM; Zeiss Supra35) coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), operating at 15 kV. Optical properties

Restorative potential of laser-synthesized silver nanoparticles with Salvia officinalis for periodontal disease treatment: an in vitro study

• Jelena Filipović Tričković,
• Sanja Živković,
• Bojana Ilić,
• Miloš Tošić,
• Jelena Marinković,
• Ana Valenta Šobot and
• Miloš Momčilović

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 781–795, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.55

• . AgNPs were synthesized at two laser pulse energies (2 and 6 mJ), in sage extract and deionized water, and characterized by dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy. Synthesis at 6 mJ in sage extract (SageAgNPs6mJ) yielded

• polystyrene cuvettes (DTS0012, Malvern Panalytical, UK) at ambient temperature (25 ± 0.1 °C). The selected AgNPs that displayed antimicrobial effects were further analyzed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), to evaluate their size, shape, and dispersity. An FEI Talos F200X microscope, operating at 200

Substrate-dependent pore formation in molybdenum disulfide monolayers under ion irradiation

• Yossarian Liebsch,
• Umair Javed,
• Lucia Skopinski,
• Leon Daniel,
• Franziska Appel,
• Radia Rahali,
• Clara Grygiel,
• Henning Lebius,
• Carolin Frank,
• Lars Breuer,
• Leon Kirsch,
• Frieder Koch,
• Jani Kotakoski and
• Marika Schleberger

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 769–780, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.54

• highly charged ions (HCIs) and swift heavy ions (SHIs) – two types of ions that, despite having vastly different kinetic energies, both interact primarily with the electronic system of the target. Using scanning transmission electron microscopy, we quantify pore radii and pore formation efficiencies for

• under both HCI and SHI irradiation conclusively demonstrate the central role of substrate and interface-dependent electronic dissipation pathways regarding damage under these types of ion irradiation. Keywords: defects; MoS2; nanopores; SiO2; scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM

• , high-resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) generally requires freestanding membranes, while atomic-resolution atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) demand exceptionally clean surfaces; also, substrate effects can further complicate interpretation

Tailoring Ag–Pt nanoalloys through solid-state dewetting: structural and optical insights

• Marcin Łapiński,
• Piotr Okoczuk,
• Blaž Grobiša,
• Ewa Pawlikowska,
• Amelia Rozwadowska,
• Wojciech Sadowski and
• Barbara Kościelska

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 748–759, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.52

• under an argon atmosphere. The process induced the transformation of continuous bilayers into isolated nanoislands through solid-state dewetting. Scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy analyses revealed the formation of well-defined, nearly spherical nanoislands with a

• plasmonic properties. Results and Discussion As-deposited thin Ag–Pt bilayers exhibit a granular morphology, as evidenced by atomic force microscopy (AFM) measurements shown in Figure 1. This granular character leads to instability of the layers at higher temperatures, causing cracking of the continuous

• a region with a lower film thickness at grain boundaries, which is well visible on the linear AFM profile in Figure 1 [45][46][47]. Figure 2a presents an exemplary scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of nanostructures formed as a result of annealing of a silver–platinum bilayer with a thickness

Oxidative atmosphere-driven formation of single-phase spinel CuRh₂O₄ nanofibers for alkaline water oxidation

• Namhee Kim,
• Sumin Ko,
• Sohyeon Choi,
• Seoyoon Jang,
• Myung Hwa Kim and
• Dasol Jin

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 737–743, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.50

• 609.6 cm−1 (A1g), which are consistent with the spinel CuRh2O4 lattice [17][18], supporting the XRD-based phase assignment (vide supra). As shown in Figure 4b, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) analysis of the electrospun CuRh2O4 nanofibers reveals clear lattice fringes with an

• electron microscopy (SEM) was employed to investigate the surface morphology and structural uniformity of the electrospun nanofibers after post-annealing. In the as-spun state prior to annealing, the fibers containing PVP exhibit smooth surfaces with an average diameter of approximately 300 nm (Supporting

• characterization Morphology and elemental composition of the synthesized nanomaterials were examined using field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM; JEOL JSM-6700F) and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM; JEOL JEM-2100F). Surface chemical states and crystallographic structures were

Environmental applications of silver nanoparticles: state-of-the-art review and emerging trends

• Soni Prajapati,
• Akash Kumar and
• Ranjana Singh

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 697–736, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.49

• needed before engineering AgNPs for particular applications. AgNPs are characterised using optical spectroscopy, electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and dynamic light scattering (DLS) to measure plasmonic absorbance, size, shape, structure, and stability [49]. Optical spectroscopy is a rapid and

• , which calculated the AgNP concentration as particles per millilitre [53]. Microscopic techniques, such as transmission electron microscopy, provide high-resolution images of individual nanoparticles, confirming morphology, size distribution, and elemental composition when coupled with energy-dispersive

• X-ray analysis [49]. TEM analysis is performed on copper grids with varying mesh sizes and coatings, with carbon/formvar-coated copper grids commonly preferred. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) provides information on the silver nanoparticles’ surface properties and the aggregation state of dried

Molecular engineering of individual dye-based nanoparticle photostability for ultrabright two-photon fluorescence

• Eleonore Kurek,
• Sasha Cooper,
• Alexandre Clausolles,
• Karen Perronet,
• Jonathan Daniel,
• Mireille Blanchard-Desce and
• François Marquier

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 688–696, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.48

• nonlinear fluorescence microscopy and bioimaging applications. Keywords: bottom-up design; organic nanoparticles; two-photon fluorescence; two-photon microscopy; Introduction Dye-based fluorescent organic nanoparticles (dFONs) are a class of self-stabilized bioimaging probes composed solely of aggregated

• photobleaching behavior of individual dFONs. This was pioneered by our team, by tracking the fluorescence intensity of single dFONs over time during one-photon-excited wide-field video-microscopy SPT experiments. The resulting exponential decay plots revealed characteristic photobleaching times ranging roughly

• . Such insights are essential for optimizing fluorophore-based nanoparticles in nonlinear microscopy and other bioimaging applications where brightness and stability must be carefully balanced. Experimental Nanoparticle preparation The synthesis and characterization of the dyes are described in details

Decontamination from water pollutants and pathogens by electrospun nanofibers doped with heavy-atom-free borafluorene-BODIPY photosensitizers

• Angelika Zaszczyńska,
• Paulina H. Marek-Urban,
• Karolina Wrochna,
• Agnieszka E. Kuklewska,
• Kacper Kręgielewski,
• Marta Grodzik,
• Dawid R. Natkowski,
• Jolanta Mierzejewska,
• Ewa Iwanek,
• Agata Blacha-Grzechnik,
• Paweł Sajkiewicz and
• Krzysztof Durka

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 668–682, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.46

• microscopy (SEM) using a JSM-6010PLUS/LV InTouchScope™ system from JEOL (Tokyo, Japan), operating at an accelerating voltage of 11 kV. Prior to imaging, each nonwoven sample underwent a double-coating process with a thin gold layer (2–3 nm). Microstructural analysis was subsequently performed utilizing

afspm: A framework for manufacturer-agnostic automation in scanning probe microscopy

• Nicholas J. Sullivan,
• Julio J. Valdés,
• Kirk H. Bevan and
• Peter Grutter

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 653–667, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.45

• Centre, Ottawa ON K4A 0S2, Canada 10.3762/bjnano.17.45 Abstract Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) is a valuable technique by which one can investigate the physical characteristics of the surfaces of materials. However, its throughput is hampered by the time-consuming nature of running an experiment and

• interfaces types. An automated experiment was run to ensure overall running beyond integration testing. Keywords: atomic force microscopy; automation; manufacturer-agnostic; scanning probe microscopy; software framework; Introduction In scanning probe microscopy (SPM), an atomically sharp tip is scanned

• directly from the computer hard drive, which simplifies the translator logic as it does not need to monitor data live (which is accessible for only some controllers). The exposed level of control assumes the user has pre-configured their “operating mode” (e.g., amplitude-modulated atomic force microscopy

Two-step laser synthesis of Ag@TiO₂ nanomaterials for the photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B

• Marija Kovačević,
• Miloš Tošić,
• Rafaela Radičić,
• Vladimir Rajić,
• Nikša Krstulović,
• Miloš Momčilović and
• Sanja Živković

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 622–634, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.43

• characterization was performed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), aiming to establish a clear correlation between synthesis parameters, nanostructure features, and photocatalytic activity. In our previous studies [6][7][21

• microstructural examination utilizing transmission electron microscopy. Investigations were conducted using scanning transmission electron microscopy, high-angle annular dark-field with energy-dispersive spectroscopy, and conventional and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy. A drop of the suspended

Recent progress in enhancing built-in electric fields of perovskite solar cells via junction engineering

• Tong Xiao and
• Ke Xu

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 602–621, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.42

• constructing an n–p homojunction. Accordingly, UPS and Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM) measurements showed that the surface work function increased by about 0.5 eV and the potential difference increased by about 0.26 V. Mott–Schottky analysis further revealed an increase in Vbi of roughly 0.1 V

Probing tribological evolution in atomically thin MoS₂ at different scales

• Xingzhong Zeng and
• Miao Zhang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 586–597, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.40

• nanoscale to sub-nanoscale, providing critical insights for designing low-friction coatings and high-performance micro/nanoelectromechanical systems (MEMS/NEMS). Keywords: atomic force microscopy; MoS2; strengthening effect; sub-nanoscale stick–slip motion; Introduction Nanoscale friction is a pivotal

• –slip events driven by in-plane tip apex motion and modulated by contact geometry via molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and frictional force microscopy (FFM) [11][12]. Despite these theoretical and simulation insights, experimental observation and quantification of sub-nanoscale stick–slip motion in

Impacts of annealing on structural and photophysical properties of zinc phthalocyanine adsorbed on graphene

• Gautier Creutzer,
• Quentin Fernez,
• Nataliya Kalashnyk,
• Zohreh Safarzadeh,
• Lydia Sosa Vargas,
• Céline Fiorini-Debuisschert,
• Nicolas Fabre and
• Fabrice Charra

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 576–585, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.39

• -tunneling-microscopy and optical microspectroscopy of a 2D phase change experienced by a self-assembled zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPc) monolayer adsorbed on graphene. To probe the intrinsic properties of individual ZnPc molecules, they are spatially confined within the pores of a self-assembled 2D matrix. This

• formation towards 3D self-assembly. Keywords: graphene; optical spectroscopy; organic semiconductors; phthalocyanine; scanning tunneling microscopy; self-assembly; Introduction Combining the properties of graphene and molecular semiconductors in a given material organized at the molecular scale appears as

• compared with results of scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS) [29]. Similarly to their thicker 3D counterparts, 2D metal-free Pc [30] or metalated Pc [31] assemblies adsorbed on various substrates have shown important phase changes induced by thermal treatments. In

Upcycling agroindustrial waste into graphene oxide supports for gold nanoparticles: toward sustainable nanomaterials

• Juan Marcos Castro-Tapia,
• Selene Acosta,
• Hiram Joazet Ojeda-Galván,
• Elsie Evelyn Araujo-Palomo,
• Edgar Giovanni Villabona-Leal and
• Mildred Quintana

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 489–504, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.32

• = 1486.6 eV). The pass energy was set to 10 eV for high-resolution scans and to 40 eV for survey spectra. All binding energies were referenced to the C=C peak at 284.4 eV. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was carried using a JEOL JEM-2100 microscope operating at an accelerating voltage of 200 kV. TEM

Defects and defect-mediated engineering of two-dimensional materials: challenges and open questions

• Arkady V. Krasheninnikov,
• Matthias Batzill,
• Anouar-Akacha Delenda,
• Marija Drndić,
• Chris Ewels,
• Katharina J. Franke,
• Mahdi Ghorbani-Asl,
• Alexander Holleitner,
• Ado Jorio,
• Ute Kaiser,
• Daria Kieczka,
• Hannu-Pekka Komsa,
• Jani Kotakoski,
• Manuel Längle,
• David Lamprecht,
• Yun Liu,
• Steven G. Louie,
• Janina Maultzsch,
• Thomas Michely,
• Katherine Milton,
• Anna Niggas,
• Hanako Okuno,
• Joshua A. Robinson,
• Marika Schleberger,
• Bruno Schuler,
• Alexander Shluger,
• Kazu Suenaga,
• Kristian S. Thygesen,
• Richard A. Wilhelm,
• E. Harriet Åhlgren and
• Carla Bittencourt

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 454–488, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.31

• created by impacts of energetic particles [18][19][20][21] by foreign atoms. Lots of insights into the structure and properties of defective 2D materials have been obtained using transmission electron microscopy (TEM), including conventional TEM and scanning TEM (STEM). These techniques, along with

• chemical potential with 2D materials determines the defect concentration. Ideally, in situ measurements of defects are employed, but given the challenging atmosphere this may require optical methods, which may not have the required sensitivity to small defect concentrations. Ex situ microscopy measurements

• (scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and STEM) are slower and may introduce uncertainties due to the required change in the thermodynamic conditions during transfer from the processing chamber to the vacuum in the microscope. Are defect complexes in sub-stoichiometric/impurity-doped 2D materials more