Microplastic pollution in Himalayan lakes: assessment, risks, and sustainable remediation strategies

• Sameeksha Rawat,
• S. M. Tauseef and
• Madhuben Sharma

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2144–2167, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.148

• other sensitive aquatic ecosystems. The review describes existing remediation technologies, categorizing these into physical, chemical, and biological interventions, and takes into account emerging sustainable approaches, including biofilm-mediated degradation and nanotechnology-based solutions. The

• deposition is outlined in Section 3. The harsh environmental conditions of the region, freeze–thaw weather, low microbial activity, and short hydrological retention times, make the degradation of MPs more difficult and these lakes to long-term sinks for plastic particles. Himalayan lakes are very susceptible

• most promising among them are photocatalytic processes that utilize titanium dioxide nanoparticles under UV radiation. These are very efficient degradation processes for degrading plastics to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water [43]. Fenton reactions, involving a mixture of hydrogen peroxide and iron

Quality by design optimization of microemulsions for topical delivery of Passiflora setacea seed oil

• Daniel T. Pereira,
• Douglas Dourado,
• Danielle T. Freire,
• Dayanne L. Porto,
• Cícero F. S. Aragão,
• Myla L. de Souza,
• Guilherme R. S. de Araujo,
• Ana Maria Costa,
• Wógenes N. Oliveira,
• Anne Sapin-Minet,
• Éverton N. Alencar and
• Eryvaldo Sócrates T. Egito

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2116–2131, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.146

• undesirable physicochemical and organoleptic properties. These include (i) unfavorable sensorial characteristics (e.g., greasy texture, poor spreadability), (ii) strong odor, and (iii) susceptibility to oxidative degradation, which can negatively impact patient compliance and therapeutic efficacy [5]. To

• (0.45 µm), and stored under refrigerated conditions (4 ± 2 °C) in amber glass bottles to preserve its quality and minimize oxidative degradation and microbiological contamination. The extraction yield aligns with values reported in the literature for the same species, which range from ≈32% with ethyl

• the oil matrix. A second thermal event began (Tonset = 384 °C) corresponding to the thermal degradation of the oil (Figure 1). This thermal behavior is consistent with that reported for P. edulis seed oil, which exhibited a similar decomposition profile [20]. Quality by design approach Defining the

Toward clinical translation of carbon nanomaterials in anticancer drug delivery: the need for standardisation

• Michał Bartkowski,
• Francesco Calzaferri and
• Silvia Giordani

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2092–2104, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.144

• . CNMs must retain their structural and functional integrity under physiological conditions, including varying pH, ionic strength, and temperature. Instability can result in aggregation, degradation, or loss of therapeutic payload. Strategies such as lyophilisation, drug encapsulation, and the use of

• . Persistent materials raise concerns regarding long-term accumulation and potential toxicity, whereas those susceptible to enzymatic or oxidative degradation offer safer clearance pathways. Recent studies have shown that CNOs can undergo biodegradation upon exposure to human myeloperoxidase, horseradish

• their surface chemistry and structure, emphasizing the need for systematic evaluation of their degradation pathways and by-products to ensure the safe design of nanomedicines. Moreover, CNMs can contain impurities that may impact their biological activity and safety. Therefore, it is important to assess

Beyond the shell: exploring polymer–lipid interfaces in core–shell nanofibers to carry hyaluronic acid and β-caryophyllene

• Aline Tavares da Silva Barreto,
• Francisco Alexandrino-Júnior,
• Bráulio Soares Arcanjo,
• Paulo Henrique de Souza Picciani and
• Kattya Gyselle de Holanda e Silva

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2015–2033, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.139

• degradation, and moderate hydrophilicity, but also biocompatibility, non-toxicity, and non-carcinogenicity [5]. Adhering to these critical quality requirements for biomedical products, polylactic acid (PLA) was selected for nanofiber production. This biotechnologically derived aliphatic polyester is a rigid

• recognition as safe and approved for human use by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). While PLA exhibits relatively high modulus and strength, it possesses limitations such as low toughness, a slow degradation rate, and high hydrophobicity [18][22][23]. Nevertheless, PLA fibers effectively provide

• . Figure 8A and Figure 8B illustrate the mass variation curves as a function of temperature, along with the first derivative of mass variation concerning temperature (DTG), obtained from TGA. In the TGA curve of the HA bulk, a degradation profile with three main stages of mass loss was observed, as

Evaluating metal-organic precursors for focused ion beam-induced deposition through solid-layer decomposition analysis

• Benedykt R. Jany,
• Katarzyna Madajska,
• Aleksandra Butrymowicz-Kubiak,
• Franciszek Krok and
• Iwona B. Szymańska

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1942–1951, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.135

• and degradation of structural quality. Halogen atoms (e.g., Cl and Br) remain bound during initial irradiation and are typically released only at high electron doses, posing risks of side reactions or inhomogeneous film formation. Volatility is assessed via the sublimation temperature; precursors with

Targeting the vector of arboviruses Aedes aegypti with nanoemulsions based on essential oils: a review with focus on larvicidal and repellent properties

• Laryssa Ferreira do Nascimento Silva,
• Douglas Dourado,
• Thayse Silva Medeiros,
• Mariana Alice Gonzaga Gabú,
• Maria Cecilia Queiroga dos Santos,
• Daiane Rodrigues dos Santos,
• Mylena Lemos dos Santos,
• Gabriel Bezerra Faierstein,
• Rosângela Maria Rodrigues Barbosa and
• Fabio Rocha Formiga

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1894–1913, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.132

• release, and protection against degradation. Nanoemulsions are colloidal systems with droplets of 20 to 500 nm, which improve the dispersion of the compounds, protect their active properties, and enhance their efficacy. This review addresses the potential of nanoemulsions as efficient carriers of EOs, and

Current status of using adsorbent nanomaterials for removing microplastics from water supply systems: a mini review

• Nguyen Thi Nhan and
• Tran Le Luu

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1837–1850, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.127

• protecting both human health and aquatic ecosystems. Review Sources and distribution pathways of MPs to water supply system Microplastics can be classified as primary or secondary. Primary MPs are intentionally manufactured for various applications, whereas secondary MPs result from the degradation or

• performance for six cycles with only a 5% efficiency loss, and enabled in situ degradation of MPs through thermal treatment to prevent desorption risks [75]. A high capture efficiency of microplastics was also achieved using novel magnetic composite nanoparticles composed of silica, gelatin, and chitosan. At

• degradation, indicating their potential as next-generation solutions. By using coprecipitation and thermal decomposition, Aragón et al. synthesized magnetic nanoparticles to capture PE MPs. The results demonstrated that the thermal decomposition method achieved a capture efficiency of 69.3 ± 2.1% [89

Phytol-loaded soybean oil nanoemulsion as a promising alternative against Leishmania amazonensis

• Victória Louise Pinto Freire,
• Mariana Farias Alves-Silva,
• Johny W. de Freitas Oliveira,
• Matheus de Freitas Fernandes-Pedrosa,
• Alianda Maira Cornélio,
• Marcelo de Souza-Silva,
• Thayse Silva Medeiros and
• Arnóbio Antônio da Silva Junior

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1826–1836, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.126

• thermal degradation of sensitive compounds, as well as excessive loss of volatile substances such as PHYT [30]. The small droplet size results in a large surface area, which enables effective interaction with biological membranes and consequently enhances drug penetration and retention [31]. Key

Piezoelectricity of layered double hydroxides: perspectives regarding piezocatalysis and nanogenerators

• Evgeniy S. Seliverstov,
• Evgeniya A. Tarasenko and
• Olga E. Lebedeva

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1812–1817, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.124

• different thicknesses were investigated for the piezo-photocatalytic degradation of carbamazepine [6]. The ultrathin samples achieved an efficiency of 95.8% with a reaction rate constant of 0.148 min−1. This effect was attributed to the higher sensitivity of ultrathin LDH sheets to both light irradiation

• -photocatalytic process. Other work was dedicated to imidacloprid degradation by activated peroxydisulfate [10]. In this study, Zn/Al-LDH served as a piezo-photocatalyst for peroxydisulfate activation. The degradation ratio for imidacloprid reached 90.6% with a reaction rate constant of 0.021 min−1, which was 205

• for activating peroxymonosulfate (PMS) to degrade norfloxacin [9]. The obtained catalyst demonstrated effective degradation within 15 min, achieving a degradation efficiency of 91.50% and a rate constant of 0.1644 min−1. In this study, the main PMS activation mechanism was non-radical. The

Electrical, photocatalytic, and sensory properties of graphene oxide and polyimide implanted with low- and medium-energy silver ions

• Josef Novák,
• Eva Štěpanovská,
• Petr Malinský,
• Vlastimil Mazánek,
• Jan Luxa,
• Ulrich Kentsch and
• Zdeněk Sofer

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1794–1811, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.123

• activity in polymeric and carbon-based materials is essential for advancing technologies in environmental sensing, flexible electronics, and photocatalytic systems. Conventional chemical modification methods often lack spatial precision, introduce impurities, and risk structural degradation. Ion

• disintegration of rhodamine B using UV light. The experimental results clearly confirmed that silver ion implantation led to a significant reduction in the surface electrical resistance of both GO and PI. Simultaneously, an enhancement of photocatalytic activity was observed, demonstrated by a faster degradation

• changes in the molecular structure. These changes indicate the onset of radiation degradation of the material, in which oxygen functional groups are removed and the polymer structure rearranges towards a more carbonaceous network. After implantation with higher-energy ions of 1.5 MeV, the changes were

Exploring the potential of polymers: advancements in oral nanocarrier technology

• Rousilândia de Araujo Silva,
• Igor Eduardo Silva Arruda,
• Luise Lopes Chaves,
• Mônica Felts de La Roca Soares and
• Jose Lamartine Soares Sobrinho

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1751–1793, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.122

• biodistribution while preventing undesirable interactions and degradation before reaching target tissues and cells [10]. Moreover, by overcoming the biological and chemical barriers of the body, nanotechnology increases the efficiency and effectiveness of therapeutic and diagnostic regimens, offering less

• methacrylates. Strategies to enhance drug entrapment and improve interactions with biological systems often combine synthetic and natural polymers, with the latter serving as a coating to protect against degradation [21]. Considering the advantages of nanoparticulate systems in drug delivery, this review

• . Release from nanospheres is generally governed by a combination of polymer degradation and drug diffusion through the matrix. Additionally, when hydrophilic polymers are employed, swelling-induced release becomes relevant, wherein polymer chain relaxation significantly influences the diffusion rate and

Advances of aptamers in esophageal cancer diagnosis, treatment and drug delivery

• Yang Fei,
• Hui Xu,
• Chunwei Zhang,
• Jingjing Wang and
• Yong Jin

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1734–1750, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.121

• through tools like Mfold is essential for optimizing aptamer truncation while preserving target affinity [33]. Also, unmodified aptamers are susceptible to nuclease degradation and renal filtration. It is often necessary to improve the retention and efficacy of aptamers in vivo by modifying nanocarriers

• several proteins associated with tumor progression, especially SQRDL and MAU2, while SOX2 levels were almost unaffected. Although there are other strategies that can achieve selective degradation of SOX2, SOX2 lacks pockets suitable for small-molecule drug binding, and proteolytically targeted chimeras

• , including siRNA, microRNA, and other nucleic acid-based pharmaceuticals. It should be noted that designing aptamer–siRNA conjugates requires special attention to overcome nuclease degradation and improve the pharmacokinetic parameters of the system [105]. At present, therapeutic antibodies are far ahead of

Multifunctional anionic nanoemulsion with linseed oil and lecithin: a preliminary approach for dry eye disease

• Niédja Fittipaldi Vasconcelos,
• Almerinda Agrelli,
• Rayane Cristine Santos da Silva,
• Carina Lucena Mendes-Marques,
• Isabel Renata de Souza Arruda,
• Priscilla Stela Santana de Oliveira,
• Mércia Liane de Oliveira and
• Giovanna Machado

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1711–1733, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.120

• bioavailability after topical ocular instillation, offering several benefits such as reducing the administration frequency, optimizing pharmacokinetic parameters, protecting against enzymatic degradation, and enhancing the stability of bioactive molecules [14][17][18][19]. Currently, three ophthalmic products

• bioactivity. No signs of oxidation or thermal degradation were observed at this temperature. TGA and DSC analyses confirm that degradation processes begin only above 340 °C, ensuring that the oil’s quality and functional properties are preserved during formulation. The optimal lecithin concentration was

• revealed two distinct thermal mass loss events. The first event occurs between 340 and 490 °C, where a significant mass reduction (~94.2%) is observed, with the degradation temperature marked at 368 °C (TOnset). This primary degradation phase involves lipolysis, the breakdown of triglycerides into fatty

Ambient pressure XPS at MAX IV

• Mattia Scardamaglia,
• Ulrike Küst,
• Alexander Klyushin,
• Rosemary Jones,
• Jan Knudsen,
• Robert Temperton,
• Andrey Shavorskiy and
• Esko Kokkonen

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1677–1694, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.118

• important challenges for modern human civilization. Reactions such as water splitting, CO2 reduction, and pollutant degradation rely on photocatalysts that absorb light, generate electron–hole pairs, and drive redox reactions at interfaces. For the rational and methodical design of a more sophisticated

• provides unique insight into surface reactions, charge transfer, and interface stability, which are central to the performance and degradation mechanisms of electrochemical systems. Electrochemical interfaces can be studied by APXPS using two primary cell types, namely, membrane-based flow cells and “dip

Prospects of nanotechnology and natural products for cancer and immunotherapy

• Jan Filipe Andrade Santos,
• Marcela Bernardes Brasileiro,
• Pamela Danielle Cavalcante Barreto,
• Ligiane Aranha Rocha and
• José Adão Carvalho Nascimento Júnior

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1644–1667, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.116

• pharmacokinetic properties, increasing bioavailability, protecting them from degradation, and allowing for site-specific delivery [24]. Consequently, this combination addresses both the limitations of natural products and the complex challenges of cancer therapy [25]. Unlike conventional literature reviews, this

• glycolysis, reducing angiogenesis, and promoting the degradation of oncogenic proteins [162][163]. The invention proposes the use of carbon dots (CDs) loaded with BER as an API, with a sustained drug release that increases upon contact with the acidic conditions surrounding tumors. Both non-loaded CDs and

Nanotechnology-based approaches for the removal of microplastics from wastewater: a comprehensive review

• Nayanathara O Sanjeev,
• Manjunath Singanodi Vallabha and
• Rebekah Rubidha Lisha Rabi

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1607–1632, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.114

• of these contaminants includes airborne particles introduced during food processing or handling, degradation of plastic packaging, and, most significantly, contamination from polluted freshwater sources [13]. Primary, secondary, and tertiary treatment methods have been explored to mitigate MP

• contamination. Meanwhile, a more sustainable solution remains essential for the future. In recent years, extensive research has focused on several processing technologies, including coagulation, advanced oxidation processes, microbial degradation, membrane bioreactor, rapid sand filtration, and dissolved air

• explores the potential of nanotechnology in removing MP contamination from water and wastewater. Unlike conventional treatment methods, which are less effective in capturing nanoscale plastic pollutants, nanotechnology-based approaches offer precision, enhanced adsorption, and catalytic degradation

Photocatalytic degradation of ofloxacin in water assisted by TiO₂ nanowires on carbon cloth: contributions of H₂O₂ addition and substrate absorbability

• Iram Hussain,
• Lisha Zhang,
• Zhizhen Ye and
• Jin-Ming Wu

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1567–1579, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.111

• unsatisfactory interaction with target contaminants diminishes photocatalytic degradation efficiency in water. Here, we present a mild solution method to precipitate anatase TiO2 nanowire arrays, measuring 1.5 μm in thickness, over carbon cloth to ensure substantial interactions with target pollutants and, in

• turn, a superior photoactivity. Compared to TiO2 nanowire arrays grown on metallic Ti substrates, TiO2 nanowires supported on carbon cloth substrates demonstrate markedly superior efficiency in the photocatalytic degradation of ofloxacin (OFL) molecules in water when exposed to UV light. The TiO2

• ; ofloxacin; photocatalytic degradation; TiO2 nanowires; wastewater treatment; Introduction Drug pollution in natural environments has become an increasingly serious issue as a result of the wide applications of drugs in the diagnosis and treatment of human diseases, anti-epidemic disinfection, aquaculture

Transient electronics for sustainability: Emerging technologies and future directions

• Jae-Young Bae,
• Myung-Kyun Choi and
• Seung-Kyun Kang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1545–1556, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.109

• operational period, addressing growing concerns over sustainability and long-term biocompatibility. Built from biodegradable materials that undergo hydrolysis or enzymatic degradation, these systems are particularly well suited for temporary implantable applications, such as neural monitors, wireless

• complete physical degradation in situ, leaving no waste or residual materials [14]. In contrast to conventional electronics designed for permanent installation or single-use disposal, transient electronics represent a paradigm shift that redefines the relationship between a functionality and physical

• wireless, fully bioresorbable electrical stimulator designed to promote nerve regeneration during the initial phase of neural injury treatment and subsequently undergo complete degradation [7] (Figure 1b), battery-free and bioresorbable pacemakers designed for on-demand cardiac rhythm management during the

Dendrimer-modified carbon nanotubes for the removal and recovery of heavy metal ions from water

• Thao Quynh Ngan Tran,
• Huu Trung Nguyen,
• Subodh Kumar and
• Xuan Thang Cao

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1522–1532, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.107

• (CNTs-G0) exhibited a distinct thermal behavior displaying an initial weight loss around 150 °C, which is likely due to the loss of water, followed by significant thermal degradation around 500 °C, corresponding to the decomposition of carboxyl groups. The CNTs-G0 sample retained 81.58% of its weight at

Laser processing in liquids: insights into nanocolloid generation and thin film integration for energy, photonic, and sensing applications

• Akshana Parameswaran Sreekala,
• Pooja Raveendran Nair,
• Jithin Kundalam Kadavath,
• Bindu Krishnan,
• David Avellaneda Avellaneda,
• M. R. Anantharaman and
• Sadasivan Shaji

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1428–1498, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.104

The role of biochar in combating microplastic pollution: a bibliometric analysis in environmental contexts

• Tuan Minh Truong Dang,
• Thao Thu Thi Huynh,
• Guo-Ping Chang-Chien and
• Ha Manh Bui

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1401–1416, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.102

• shown in Figure S1, Supporting Information File 1, four primary research themes have been explored at the national level since 2017, namely, (i) adsorption capacity and mechanisms, (ii) composting-related fertilizer applications, (iii) degradation of plastic mulch into polymers in soil, and (iv

• connectivity of each keyword within the network. Among the top ten items with the highest centrality, “biochar” emerges as the core linking element across various research domains related to mitigating MP impact. The second most central item, “degradation”, has been a focal point since 2020, primarily

• illustrates the effectiveness of biochar in counteracting the physical degradation caused by MPs. In terms of soil chemical properties, MPs influence pH, organic matter content, and macronutrient levels, including nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). For example, 3–7% low-density polyethylene (LDPE

Synthesis and antibacterial properties of nanosilver-modified cellulose triacetate membranes for seawater desalination

• Lei Wang,
• Shizhe Li,
• Kexin Xu,
• Wenjun Li,
• Ying Li and
• Gang Liu

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1380–1391, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.100

• fibers boast exceptional hydrophilicity, facile film-forming ability, high salt retention rate, cost effectiveness, environmental friendliness, and resistance to chlorine; making it a promising material for water desalination [25][26][27]. However, CTA is susceptible to erosion and degradation by

• absorbed water; a noticeable weight loss in the temperature range of 300–370 °C, due to the thermal degradation of CTA; and slow weight loss after 370 °C, caused by the combustion of degraded products. Differential thermal analysis (DTA) reveals distinct transition temperatures associated with endothermic

• the CTA membrane, thereby corroborating the conclusions drawn from the SEM images. To investigate the morphological changes of Ag@PCTA during the desalination process, SEM was used to examine the surface morphology of the coating and to identify any signs of degradation or loss. The surface images

Enhancing the therapeutical potential of metalloantibiotics using nano-based delivery systems

• Alejandro Llamedo,
• Marina Cano,
• Raquel G. Soengas and
• Francisco J. García-Alonso

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1350–1366, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.98

• and bioavailability [71]. They are formulated from lipids that are generally recognized as safe, making them highly biocompatible and low in toxicity [72]. Moreover, the solid lipid matrix slows down drug diffusion and lipid degradation, enabling a controlled, long-lasting release of the encapsulated

• selectivity, poor biodistribution and pharmacokinetics, poor water solubility, dose-limiting toxicity, and fast degradation in vivo. We will discuss next the major discoveries in the field of the application of nano-based systems for the targeted delivery of metal complex-based antibiotic compounds, focusing

• been suggested that the antibacterial action is strongly related to bioavailability and stability. In fact, the poor water solubility, the degradation (precipitation) by chloride in the bloodstream, the interaction with sulfur-containing proteins, and the rapid clearance by macrophages are the main

Ferroptosis induction by engineered liposomes for enhanced tumor therapy

• Alireza Ghasempour,
• Mohammad Amin Tokallou,
• Mohammad Reza Naderi Allaf,
• Mohsen Moradi,
• Hamideh Dehghan,
• Mahsa Sedighi,
• Mohammad-Ali Shahbazi and
• Fahimeh Lavi Arab

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1325–1349, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.97

• labile iron in a non-toxic and inorganic state [56]. Iron storage proteins play a unique role in the inhibition of ferroptosis. Inhibition of ferritinophagy by suppressing nuclear receptor coactivator 4 (NCOA4) and preventing ferritin degradation by lysosomes limits the incidence of ferroptosis [57]. In

• . Artemisinin derivatives, such as artesunate, belong to the category of organic peroxides that can effectively trigger cell death [88][92][93]. (IV) An accumulation of excess free iron within cells directly triggers lipid peroxidation and then ferroptosis. The degradation of drug-activated ferritin raises the

• liposomes. Glycerophospholipids influence the biophysical properties of liposomes; longer hydrocarbon chains can lead to a denser membrane structure and improve drug retention. Lipid degradation is significantly reduced when liposomes containing sphingomyelin are exposed to acidic conditions. Cholesterol

Acrocomia aculeata oil-loaded nanoemulsion: development, anti-inflammatory properties, and cytotoxicity evaluation

• Verónica Bautista-Robles,
• Hady Keita,
• Edgar Julián Paredes Gamero,
• Layna Tayná Brito Leite,
• Jessica de Araújo Isaías Muller,
• Mônica Cristina Toffoli Kadri,
• Ariadna Lafourcade Prada and
• Jesús Rafael Rodríguez Amado

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1277–1288, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.93

• composition may be attributed to variations in environmental conditions, such as climatic conditions, temperature, and pulp drying duration before oil extraction. Additionally, the specific extraction technique employed can influence lipid degradation and promote the formation of free fatty acids [19

• under mechanical agitation [48]. Nevertheless, while these conditions favor the formation of smaller nanodroplets, temperatures above 60 °C may compromise emulsion stability, potentially triggering phase separation or degradation of labile components. This highlights the necessity for stringent