Development and in vitro evaluation of liposomes and immunoliposomes containing 5-fluorouracil and R-phycoerythrin as a potential phototheranostic system for colorectal cancer

• Raissa Rodrigues Camelo,
• Vivianne Cortez Sombra Vandesmet,
• Octavio Vital Baccallini,
• José de Brito Vieira Neto,
• Thais da Silva Moreira,
• Luzia Kalyne Almeida Moreira Leal,
• Claudia Pessoa,
• Daniel Giuliano Cerri,
• Maria Vitória Lopes Badra Bentley,
• Josimar O. Eloy,
• Ivanildo José da Silva Júnior and
• Raquel Petrilli

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 97–121, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.7

• in a stable range. From the choice of the 50 mg HSPC liposome, the immunoliposomes were developed. The selected immunoliposomes, composed HSPC/DOPE/Chol/DSPE-PEG-Mal in a ratio of 64:10:22.2:3.7, were named HSPC IM 07. This formulation presented low PDI (0.185 ± 0.01), small vesicle size (99.45

• ; 1 Introduction Colorectal cancer (CRC) consists in malignant neoplasms related to several histologic types along the colon and rectum. In 2020, worldwide, colorectal cancer is the 3rd most prevalent type of cancer, corresponding to around 10% of the total cases of this disease. Regarding mortality

• tumor cells, enhancing the internalization of the system and promoting greater cytotoxic activity compared to conventional therapies [10]. By combining selective cytotoxicity with the potential to label cancer tissue using an imaging probe, EGFR-targeted immunoliposomes represent an integrated approach

Functional surface engineering for cultural heritage protection: the role of superhydrophobic and superoleophobic coatings – a comprehensive review

• Giuseppe Cesare Lama,
• Marino Lavorgna,
• Letizia Verdolotti,
• Federica Recupido,
• Giovanna Giuliana Buonocore and
• Bharat Bhushan

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 63–96, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.6

• non-destructive [7]. The papers discussing monitoring and the evaluation of the damages to monuments or landscapes, by means of topographic surveys and successive numerical simulations, are the most cited in this area [8][9][10][11][12]. Probably, one of the most detailed examples is represented by

• material, which could be cut and applied with precision. A control test using a PHB–EL gel (without DFO) confirmed no harmful interaction with the bare steel substrate. Cleaning performance was evaluated for 10, 20, and 30 min of application, and effectiveness was found to increase. Multimodal

Microscopic study of the intermediate mixed state in intertype superconductors

• Vyacheslav D. Neverov,
• Alexander V. Kalashnikov,
• Andrey V. Krasavin and
• Alexei Vagov

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 57–62, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.5

• complex, irregular patterns that cannot be attributed to type-I or type-II behavior [5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]. These patterns are referred to as intermediate mixed state (IMS) and are characterized by the coexistence of Meissner domains and vortex clusters, chains, or fragmented lattices

Subdigital integumentary microstructure in Cyrtodactylus (Squamata: Gekkota): do those lineages with incipiently expressed toepads exclusively exhibit adhesive setae?

• Philipp Ginal,
• Yannick Ecker,
• Timothy Higham,
• L. Lee Grismer,
• Benjamin Wipfler,
• Dennis Rödder,
• Anthony Russell and
• Jendrian Riedel

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 38–56, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.4

• bear microscopic epidermal filaments (microstructures) and are associated with modified musculature, bone morphology, and blood vessels [10][11][12][13][14]. This effective system allows geckos to adhere, despite being at the upper weight limit for organisms bearing adhesive toepads [15]. In geckos

Reduced graphene oxide paper electrode for lithium-ion cells – towards optimized thermal reduction

• Agata Pawłowska,
• Magdalena Baran,
• Stefan Marynowicz,
• Aleksandra Izabela Banasiak,
• Adrian Racki,
• Adrian Chlanda,
• Tymoteusz Ciuk,
• Marta Wolczko and
• Andrzej Budziak

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 24–37, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.3

• few examples of rGO-based materials for electrodes, especially for lithium-ion batteries, LiFePO4 and rGO composite cathodes were reported by Wi et al. and Wei and colleagues [8][9]. Moreover, Wang et al. described a method for LiMn0.75Fe0.25PO4 nanorod production on rGO sheets [10]. Again, the

• samples per material, that is, M300, T400, T600, and T800. Raman spectroscopy The structural properties of the rGO paper sheets were studied with Raman spectroscopy (InVia Renishaw spectrometer). The spectra were collected with three accumulations, a 10 s exposure time, and 1% laser power (laser

• paper sample). For this testing method, rGO paper sheets were cut into circles of 10 mm diameter with a stainless steel hole punch and weighed (the mass of cut samples ranged between ca. 0.0010 and 0.0018 g, with an areal mass loading from 1.3 to 2.3 mg/cm2 and a density of 0.56 to 2.57 g/cm3). Since

Competitive helical bands and highly efficient diode effect in F/S/TI/S/F hybrid structures

• Tairzhan Karabassov,
• Irina V. Bobkova,
• Pavel M. Marychev,
• Vasiliy S. Stolyarov,
• Vyacheslav M. Silkin and
• Andrey S. Vasenko

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 15–23, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.2

• superconducting electronics [2][3][4]. So far, the superconducting diode effect has been reported in many different systems, including Josephson junctions [5][6][7][8][9][10][11], junction-free devices [12][13][14][15][16][17], superconducting microbridges [18][19], and other systems [20][21]. There have been

Quantitative estimation of nanoparticle/substrate adhesion by atomic force microscopy

• Aydan Çiçek,
• Markus Kratzer,
• Christian Teichert and
• Christian Mitterer

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 1–14, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.1

• gets large compared to their volume, adhesion forces become predominant. Understanding the adhesion of NPs is expected to provide significant benefits in many applications [9][10]. A prerequisite for their application is the ability to measure and to understand their adhesion to suitable support

• adhesion forces. Experimental Synthesis of Cu nanoparticles Before deposition, single-crystalline Si(100) wafer substrates, with a thickness of around 500 µm and covered by a native oxide, were cleaned in an ultrasonic bath for 10 min with ethanol, followed by rinsing with isopropanol. Then, the substrates

• × 10−7 mbar. Ar was introduced as a sputtering gas, keeping a constant flow rate of 40 sccm. Sputtering was carried out at a constant current of 200 mA (≈70 W) applied to the target. The sputtered atoms start to form NPs and to grow in the aggregation zone, where the aggregation length was adjusted to

Internal 3D temperature mapping in biological systems using ratiometric light-sheet imaging and lipid-coated upconversion nanothermometers

• Dannareli Barron-Ortiz,
• Enric Pérez-Parets,
• Rubén D. Cadena-Nava,
• Emilio J. Gualda,
• Jacob Licea-Rodríguez,
• Juan Hernández-Cordero,
• Pablo Loza-Álvarez and
• Israel Rocha-Mendoza

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2306–2316, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.159

• and non-biological applications. LNTs rely on the emission properties of a fluorophore and its thermal dependence to measure temperature changes, which can be measured as variations in the emission intensity [10][11][12][13] and lifetime [8][14][15][16], spectral shift [17], as well as intensity

• materials have been developed, including nanodiamonds [32], quantum dots [17][28], nanodots [11][13][33], fluorescent-based molecular systems [1][8][34], and lanthanide (Ln3+)-doped materials [10][35][36][37]. Among all these alternatives, lanthanide-doped materials offer a distinct advantage: upconversion

• thin-film hydration method based on Rojas-Gutierrez’s procedure [52]. Based on the size distribution and concentration of the nanoparticles (10 mg·mL−1), a lipid layer was formed with DOPS, cholesterol, and DMPC at a molar ratio of 64:29:7. The three lipids were dispersed in chloroform and mixed with

Terahertz-range on-chip local oscillator based on Josephson junction arrays for superconducting quantum-limited receivers

• Fedor V. Khan,
• Lyudmila V. Filippenko,
• Andrey B. Ermakov,
• Mikhail Yu. Fominsky and
• Valery P. Koshelets

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2296–2305, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.158

• -based telescopes are combined in a large net called “Event Horizon Telescope” [10] which was used for direct observation of the black hole shadow in the M87 Galaxy [11]. The LOs for the conventional SIS receivers are mostly generated by Schottky diode multipliers, which have a radiation power in the

• , demonstrating the possibility of generating frequencies from 150 to 800 GHz with power ranging from 0.2 to 10 μW. In recent papers [38][39], we have suggested a new type of JJ arrays where the junctions are embedded into the central electrode of the coplanar transmission line (CPW). For a local oscillator in a

• IVC of the JJ array when the PLL mode is active is shown in Figure 10. The current step induced by the PLL system is approx. 0.5 mA, which is three orders of magnitude higher than the characteristic noise level in the current bias system (≈0.5 μA) and thermal noise. This shows the robust nature of the

Improving magnetic properties of Mn- and Zn-doped core–shell iron oxide nanoparticles by tuning their size

• Dounia Louaguef,
• Ghouti Medjahdi,
• Sébastien Diliberto,
• Klaus M. Seemann,
• Thomas Gries,
• Joelle Bizeau,
• Damien Mertz,
• Eric Gaffet and
• Halima Alem

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2285–2295, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.157

• as a promising alternative due to its biocompatibility, high magnetic moment, and potential for use in hyperthermia and drug delivery applications [10]. Manganese is naturally present in the human body and exists primarily as Mn2+ and Mn3+ ions, making it more biocompatible than cobalt. The

• substitution of Fe3+ with Mn2+ in ferrites introduces uncompensated magnetic moments, thereby enhancing the overall magnetic properties [11]. MnFe2O4 nanoparticles have been reported to exhibit higher SAR and SLP values than Fe3−δO4 or ZnFe2O4 due to the higher magnetic moment of Mn2+ ions [10]. While the

• mL) was added to precipitate the nanoparticles. The resulting black solid was collected by centrifugation (10,000 rpm, 10 min), washed twice with ethanol, and redispersed in toluene (10 mL) [7]. Synthesis of polyhedral core–shell nanoparticles The polyhedral Zn0.4Fe2.6O4 nanoparticles were coated

Visualizing nanostructures in supramolecular hydrogels: a correlative study using confocal and cryogenic scanning electron microscopy

• Shaun M. Smith,
• Ferdinando Malagreca,
• Jacqueline Hicks,
• Giuseppe Mantovani,
• David B. Amabilino,
• Christopher Parmenter and
• Lluïsa Pérez-García

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2274–2284, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.156

• selective incorporation of fluorophores, it is possible to highlight different components of the hydrogel or embedded cells, facilitating 3D reconstruction of the microarchitecture [10]. However, the achievable resolution in conventional confocal microscopy is still restricted to over one hundred nanometres

• sphere. The fluorescence and fluorescence quantum yield measurements were carried out using quartz cuvettes of 1 and 10 mm path lengths, respectively. Confocal laser scanning microscopy imaging CLSM imaging was carried out on a Zeiss LSM 900 with AiryScan 2 detector (essential for observation here) on an

• PP3010. The gel sample underwent 5 min of etching via sublimation at −100 °C followed by sputtering in an argon environment using platinum for 60 s at a current of 10 mA. Once coated, the shuttle was transferred to the cryo-stage in the SEM chamber and maintained at −170 °C. Finally, the microstructure

Geometry-controlled engineering of the low-temperature proximity effect in normal metal–superconductor junctions

• Munisa A. Tomayeva,
• Vyacheslav D. Neverov,
• Andrey V. Krasavin,
• Alexei Vagov and
• Mihail D. Croitoru

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2265–2273, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.155

• , the normal-metal coherence length, , where Dn is the electron diffusion coefficient and Tc is the critical temperature [8][9]. In a FM, the exchange field Eex further suppresses superconducting correlations, resulting in a shorter coherence length, [10][11][12][13]. This gradual decay of

Chiral plasmonic nanostructures fabricated with circularly polarized light

• Tian Qiao and
• Ming Lee Tang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2245–2264, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.154

• crystals can affect the polarization of light [10][11]. Subsequently, Biot showed that organic compounds, such as turpentine oil, sugar solutions, camphor, and tartaric acid, can also rotate the polarization of linearly polarized light [12], later attributed by Fresnel to birefringence in the chiral medium

• -assisted hydrolysis with relatively low-energy electrons (≈1.5 eV compared to >10 eV at the hot spots) at the lateral sides of AuNRs. In contrast, polymethyl(methacrylate) (PMMA) decomposed preferentially at the hot spots of the AuNRs under femtosecond laser excitation by high-energy hot electrons

• resolution of 10 nm or better to characterize plasmon near fields. These techniques can be readily applied to cPNSs to map the chirality of the near-field geometry or the near-field interaction with CPL. NSOM is a scanning probe technique that overcomes the diffraction limit in traditional far-field optical

Optical bio/chemical sensors for vitamin B₁₂ analysis in food and pharmaceuticals: state of the art, challenges, and future outlooks

• Seyed Mohammad Taghi Gharibzahedi and
• Zeynep Altintas

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2207–2244, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.153

• lead to several health issues such as pernicious anemia (PA), anemia, fatigue, nausea, and weight loss [2][8]. In contrast, excessive intake of VB12 may contribute to conditions like liver disease, neurotoxicity, kidney failure, or myeloproliferative disorders [2][9][10]. Consequently, monitoring the

• ), and fatigue reduction [2][36]. VB12 deficiency represents a significant global public health concern, impacting approx. 6% of the global population and 1.6% to 10% of European communities [37]. The different demographic data showed that the most vulnerable groups to VB12 deficiency comprise geriatric

• populations, vegetarians and vegans, pregnant women, and breastfeeding infants of VB12-deficient mothers, particularly in developing countries [10][38][39][40]. VB12 has a pivotal role in the development of the fetal and neonatal brain. Therefore, mothers with vegetarian and vegan diets should significantly

Electromagnetic study of a split-ring resonator metamaterial with cold-electron bolometers

• Ekaterina A. Matrozova,
• Alexander V. Chiginev,
• Leonid S. Revin and
• Andrey L. Pankratov

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2199–2206, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.152

• , enabling operation in a wide frequency range from gigahertz frequencies to X-rays [6][7][8] due to a normal-metal absorber. CEBs offer several advantages over other types of receivers such as transition edge sensors [9][10][11]. These advantages include their micrometer-scale size, which facilitates direct

Ultrathin water layers on mannosylated gold nanoparticles

• Maiara A. Iriarte Alonso,
• Jorge H. Melillo,
• Silvina Cerveny,
• Yujin Tong and
• Alexander M. Bittner

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2183–2198, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.151

• carbohydrate display, which defines their biological function [10], a small globular core, and chemically well-defined composition. Proof-of-concept studies have demonstrated the vast potential of glyconanoparticles for glyconanotechnology in solution. However, potential changes of “glycoclusters” [2] in dry

• with short or long ethylene glycol chains adsorb in clusters [43], while glycosylated AuNPs are homogeneously dispersed [10]. Our AFM observations of nanoscale hydration [44] show a general trend to stronger water adsorption on dimanno-AuNPs, as compared to the PEG AuNPs (Figure 7). This agrees with

• (99.5%) was obtained from Acros (Belgium) and absolute ethanol (99%) from Panreac (Spain). Aqueous solutions of dimanno-AuNPs and PEG AuNPs were kindly provided by the Bio Nano Plasmonics Lab at CIC Biomagune (San Sebastián, Spain). Water was of ultrapure quality (Milli-Q, 18.2 MΩ·cm, <10 ppb total

Hartree–Fock interaction in superconducting condensate fractals

• Edward G. Nikonov,
• Yajiang Chen,
• Mauro M. Doria and
• Arkady A. Shanenko

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2177–2182, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.150

• [9][10][11]. Quasicrystals exhibit long-range orientational order, such as the fivefold symmetry in Al86Mn14 alloys [9][10], but lack the translational invariance [11]. The superconductivity of quasicrystals was established in 2018 with the discovery of superconducting signatures in an Al–Zn–Mg alloy

• the entire procedure is repeated until convergence is achieved. The calculation is considered converged when the relative changes in the order parameter and the HF field are below 10−7. To model quasicrystal superconducting properties, as the first step, we consider a finite Fibonacci sequence

• interaction, its spatially averaged value (in the interval from i = 140 to i = 240) does not exhibit a significant drop and is reduced by less than 10%. An even smaller difference is observed between the two critical temperatures, Tc = 0.304 and Tc,HF = 0.301. In addition, for the present case, we have ⟨Δ⟩T=0

Missing links in nanomaterials research impacting productivity and perceptions

• Santosh K. Tiwari and
• Nannan Wang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2168–2176, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.149

• , and FeCl2), 2D nitrides (e.g., BCN), 2D transition metal nitrides(e.g., MoN, Ti4N3, and GaN) [10], 2D carbides (e.g., α-C2N and B2C), 2D perovskites (e.g., (BA)2PbI4), and 2D metal-organic frameworks have also shown extraordinary promise. These nanosystems exhibit exceptional physical and chemical

Microplastic pollution in Himalayan lakes: assessment, risks, and sustainable remediation strategies

• Sameeksha Rawat,
• S. M. Tauseef and
• Madhuben Sharma

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2144–2167, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.148

• to MP pollution [4][7][8][9]. MPs enter these ecosystems due to glacier melting, tourism, agricultural runoff, and inadequate waste management. Anchar Lake and Dal Lake in Kashmir, for instance, exhibit high MP levels owing to household waste and touristic activities [10]. Recreational activities and

• ) spectroscopy is used regularly to identify the chemical structure of MPs [34]. One of the most important developments for nanoplastic detection in complex environmental matrices is micro-FTIR to analyze particles smaller than 10 µm [35]. Raman spectroscopy improves on FTIR by using higher resolution and the

• more than 99% removal efficiencies under controlled conditions [42]. Sedimentation methods are frequently used in wastewater treatment plants, making use of the density difference between MPs and water. But it is difficult to trap particles measuring less than 10 µm with such processes. Physical

Electron transport through nanoscale multilayer graphene and hexagonal boron nitride junctions

• Aleksandar Staykov and
• Takaya Fujisaki

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2132–2143, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.147

• graphene has focused on in-plane conductivity, and only very few studies have reported data on the electron transport properties between the adjacent planes [9][10][11][12][13]. Defects in graphene can alter its electronic states and lead to deviations from its intrinsic properties. We look at two common

• -state current through the device is given by Equation 10, where e is the electron charge, f is the Fermi function of the electrodes, μL and μR are the chemical potentials at the left and the right electrode, respectively, and T(E) is the transmission probability as a function of the electron energy

• distance between graphene or h-BN and the Pt surface is set to 3.2 Å. The central region includes six layers of the source electrode and six layers of the drain electrode. The electrode supercells are 3 × 3 × 3 Pt unit cells. The (I/V) curves are computed using the methodology described in Equations 2–10

Quality by design optimization of microemulsions for topical delivery of Passiflora setacea seed oil

• Daniel T. Pereira,
• Douglas Dourado,
• Danielle T. Freire,
• Dayanne L. Porto,
• Cícero F. S. Aragão,
• Myla L. de Souza,
• Guilherme R. S. de Araujo,
• Ana Maria Costa,
• Wógenes N. Oliveira,
• Anne Sapin-Minet,
• Éverton N. Alencar and
• Eryvaldo Sócrates T. Egito

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2116–2131, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.146

• process understanding, and risk management [10]. Key elements include the definition of a quality target product profile (QTPP), identification of critical quality attributes (CQAs), and comprehensive risk assessment (RA) [10]. The QTPP establishes the desired characteristics of the final product to

• variability and supporting the systematic optimization of the formulation [10][12]. Therefore, the present study aimed to develop and optimize a low-surfactant microemulsion containing PEG-30 castor oil and Span® 80, based on the approach described by Dourado et al. (2022) [13], as a topical delivery system

• %), oleic acid (20.67%), palmitic acid (9.32%), and stearic acid (3.36%). Additional compounds, including isopropyl myristate, isopropyl 14-methylpentadecanoate, 10-octadecenoic acid, and isoarachidic acid, were also detected and are reported here for the first time in this Passiflora species. It is

Rapid synthesis of highly monodisperse AgSbS₂ nanocrystals: unveiling multifaceted activities in cancer therapy, antibacterial strategies, and antioxidant defense

• Funda Ulusu,
• Adem Sarilmaz,
• Yakup Ulusu,
• Faruk Ozel and
• Mahmut Kus

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2105–2115, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.145

• ) planes of the AgSbS2 phase. TEM and SEM techniques were used to comprehensively characterize the NCs. The results showed that spherical NCs were predominantly formed, with an average diameter of approximately 32 ± 10 nm. Cytotoxicity studies demonstrated a significant inhibitory effect of the NCs

• cascade of events leads to DNA breakage, heightened expression of death receptors, and ultimately culminates in apoptosis-driven cell death [10]. Therefore, nanoparticles can be considered as a medical agent in the treatment of various diseases that can be caused by free radicals, such as cancer

• nm) was evaluated by a disc diffusion assay [23]. In this study, overnight cultures of S. aureus, B. subtilis, and E. coli clinical pathogens were inoculated separately on Mueller–Hinton agar (MHA) plates. NCs were dissolved in 10% DMSO. Following, sterile discs (6 mm diameter) loaded with 10 µL (20

Toward clinical translation of carbon nanomaterials in anticancer drug delivery: the need for standardisation

• Michał Bartkowski,
• Francesco Calzaferri and
• Silvia Giordani

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2092–2104, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.144

• energy sectors (Figure 1). NMs have seen use as antimicrobial agents [1], catalysts [2], bioimaging agents [3][4][5][6], magnetic particle imaging agents [7], nanofluids [8], antiviral agents [9], photothermal convertors [10], and in environmental remediation [11]. Topically, the biomedical applications

• Fund and the European Union [19]. Despite our understanding of preventable contributing factors, cancer remains a global burden, affecting over 10 million people annually. As of 2016, it is the leading cause of death in 55 countries (Figure 2), particularly those with high Human Development Index (HDI

Calibration of piezo actuators and systems by dynamic interferometry

• Knarik Khachatryan and
• Michael Reichling

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2086–2091, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.143

• microscopy (NC-AFM) operation in an ultrahigh-vacuum (UHV) environment at low temperature and has been developed tremendously over the last three decades [7][8][9][10][11][12]. In frequency-modulated NC-AFM, the cantilever is kept at oscillation with constant amplitude, yielding an interferometric signal

• directions in steps of 20 V, while an accommodation time of 10 min passes before the extension or contraction is measured. The cantilever excitation voltage is kept constant at Vexc = 3.50 V, yielding an oscillation amplitude of A = 111 nm, facilitating convenient interferometer signal fits. Results and

• interferometer is forced back to the initial condition of perfect alignment before each run of amplitude calibration. To allow for piezo relaxation after significant extension or retraction, a waiting time of 10 min has been applied between the change in and the following calibration measurement. The amplitude

Multifrequency AFM integrating PeakForce tapping and higher eigenmodes for heterogeneous surface characterization

• Yanping Wei,
• Jiafeng Shen,
• Yirong Yao,
• Xuke Li,
• Ming Li and
• Peiling Ke

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2077–2085, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.142

• signals can be correlated with specific interaction types, such as conservative and dissipative processes [10][11][12]. Despite these advances, critical limitations persist. The inherent nonlinearity of tip–sample dynamics in tapping and multimodal AFM often introduces imaging artifacts. Typical examples