Electrolyte tuning in dye-sensitized solar cells with N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) iron(II) sensitizers

• Mariia Karpacheva,
• Catherine E. Housecroft and
• Edwin C. Constable

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 3069–3078, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.285

• additives in an I−/I3−-based electrolyte. We present data for fully masked DSCs to avoid overestimation of their performance [40]. Results and Discussion Effects of solvent and ionic liquid The working electrodes for the DSCs were prepared using commercial FTO/TiO2 electrodes immersed in a MeCN solution

• in Table 1. In typical I−/I3−-based electrolytes, LiI and I2 are present in a solvent such as MeCN, 3-methoxypropionitrile (MPN) or valeronitrile, with added ionic liquid, often 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium iodide (BMII, Scheme 3). Additives are also present to tune the TiO2 conduction band energy and

• series resistance (Rs), a resistance (RPt) and a constant phase element (CPE1) to model a platinum counter electrode, an extended distributed element (DX1) which represented the TiO2/electrolyte interface as a transmission line model, and a Warburg element (Ws) associated with diffusion of the

Graphene-enhanced metal oxide gas sensors at room temperature: a review

• Dongjin Sun,
• Yifan Luo,
• Marc Debliquy and
• Chao Zhang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 2832–2844, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.264

• achieved at all [19][20]. Metal-oxide semiconductors (MOS), including tin oxide (SnO2), titanium dioxide (TiO2), zinc oxide (ZnO), copper oxide (CuO), tungsten oxide (WO3), indium oxide (In2O3), ferric oxide (Fe2O3) and cobalt oxide (Co3O4) are important materials for gas sensors [21][22][23][24][25][26

• dioxide (TiO2), as a wide-bandgap semiconductor, has been widely used as photocatalyst, and in solar cells and gas sensors [70][71][72]. In general, its operating temperature is over 200 °C, so scholars try to prepare composites with graphene to reduce its operating temperature. However, the stability of

• this type of composite sensors is a problem. Recently Li et al. [73] reported an ultrafast and sensitive NH3 sensor using rGO decorated with TiO2 nanocrystals. There were two different morphologies in these sensing materials: rGO either laid on the surface of TiO2 nanoparticles, partly wrapping them

Impact of the anodization time on the photocatalytic activity of TiO₂ nanotubes

• Jesús A. Díaz-Real,
• Geyla C. Dubed-Bandomo,
• Juan Galindo-de-la-Rosa,
• Luis G. Arriaga,
• Janet Ledesma-García and
• Nicolas Alonso-Vante

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 2628–2643, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.244

• length, fluorine content, and capacitance of the space charge region increased, affecting the opto-electronic properties (bandgap, bathochromic shift, band-edge position) and surface hydrophilicity of TiO2 NTs. These properties are at the origin of the photocatalytic activity (PCA), as proved with the

• photooxidation of methylene blue. Keywords: fluorine doping; nanotubes; photocatalytic activity; photoelectrochemistry; titanium(IV) oxide (TiO2); Introduction TiO2 started to attract great interest after Fujishima and Honda reported [1] on its photoelectrochemical (PEC) properties in 1972. Numerous features

• such as excellent chemical stability, photo-corrosion resistance, low cost, and low toxicity make TiO2 a material suitable for energy production and environmental applications, such as advanced oxidation processes for the decomposition of organic pollutants in water [2][3]. However, the material

Non-agglomerated silicon–organic nanoparticles and their nanocomplexes with oligonucleotides: synthesis and properties

• Asya S. Levina,
• Marina N. Repkova,
• Nadezhda V. Shikina,
• Zinfer R. Ismagilov,
• Svetlana A. Yashnik,
• Dmitrii V. Semenov,
• Yulia I. Savinovskaya,
• Natalia A. Mazurkova,
• Inna A. Pyshnaya and
• Valentina F. Zarytova

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 2516–2525, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.234

• formation of TiO2·PL–DNA nanocomposites [1][2]. Silica nanoparticles can also be used as vehicles to deliver nucleic acid fragments into cells [3][4]. SiO2 nanoparticles bearing amino groups on the surface were shown to bind plasmid DNA, allowing the nanoparticles to penetration into cells, and even nuclei

• ), and the nanocomplex containing random ODN(5) was much less active. The antiviral activity of the Si–NH2·ODN(4) nanocomplex was not inferior to that of the TiO2·PL–ODN nanocomplexes reported in our previous papers [20][21][22]. The high inhibition efficiency of the virus reproduction with the use of

Nanocellulose: Recent advances and its prospects in environmental remediation

• Katrina Pui Yee Shak,
• Yean Ling Pang and
• Shee Keat Mah

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 2479–2498, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.232

• nanostructures in the form of thin film, membrane, fibre and hybrid materials under UV and visible light irradiation. Nanocellulose–metal oxide (TiO2, ZnO, graphene oxide, and Fe2O3) composites have been used as photocatalysts to improve the degradation rate of organic pollutants as compared to individual

• can facilitate the adsorption of metal oxide to its surface. Thus, Li et al. [123] proposed the immobilization of TiO2 nanoparticles on a fine fibrous network of bacterial cellulose via hydrogen bonds and electrostatic adsorption effect for the photocatalytic degradation of reactive X-3B. TiO2

• fibrillated cellulose as a support/carrier for catalyst nanoparticles has attracted a lot of attention in recent years. For example, a study led by An et al. [125] discusses the application of CNFs as a support for titanium dioxide nanoparticles to prepare nano-fibrillated cellulose–TiO2 nanoparticle

Thickness-dependent photoelectrochemical properties of a semitransparent Co₃O₄ photocathode

• Malkeshkumar Patel and
• Joondong Kim

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 2432–2442, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.228

• in such applications include CuxO [19][29], CdS [30], TiO2 [31], Fe2O3 [32], and BiVO4 [33][34]. To absorb light with Co3O4, an adequately thick film is required. However, the low mobility of photogenerated charge carriers in Co3O4 can result in a low carrier lifetime, which is detrimental for

Block copolymers for designing nanostructured porous coatings

• Roberto Nisticò

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 2332–2344, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.218

• minimization of the surface free energy [104]. Analogously as for silica, even titania can be produced with closed spherical pores within the oxidic structures by using high molecular weight PS-b-PEO copolymers (as shown in Figure 6) [105]. Organic–inorganic PS-b-PEO/TiO2 hybrid nanostructured coatings can

Surface energy of nanoparticles – influence of particle size and structure

• Dieter Vollath,
• Franz Dieter Fischer and
• David Holec

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 2265–2276, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.211

• surface energy of ceramic materials based on molecular dynamics calculations are quite rare. Naicker et al. [57] calculated the surface energy of three modifications of titania, TiO2, as a function of the particle size. For these three modifications, the calculations resulted in a significant decrease of

Lead-free hybrid perovskites for photovoltaics

• Oleksandr Stroyuk

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 2209–2235, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.207

• mesoporous metal oxide (TiO2) scaffold [67]. Later, it was recognized that Pb-based HPs are incomparably more efficient when applied as light harvesters in photovoltaic planar or bulk heterojunction solar cells. Such cells have two designs – a “conventional” n–i–p design with a HP layer deposited onto the

• dominates in the studies of HPs with the typical ETLs being titania and various TiO2-based composites [27]. The most efficient and frequently used HTLs are among the derivatives of spirobifluorene (Spiro-OMeTAD, see Table 1) and polythiophenes (PEDOT:PSS). Recently, very good prospects were recognized for

• construction of solar cells with a TiO2 ETL and Spiro-OMeTAD HTL. The CB shift results in an increase in the efficiency of electron transfer to the titania scaffold. This tendency is, however, counter-balanced by a reduction of the spectral sensitivity range due to an increased Eg. Summarily, both trends

Electrospun one-dimensional nanostructures: a new horizon for gas sensing materials

• Muhammad Imran,
• Nunzio Motta and
• Mahnaz Shafiei

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 2128–2170, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.202

• flow or disperse to form a uniform homogeneous solution. The former gives rise to bi-component nanofibers, while the latter produces blended polymer fibers. Dual-layer TiO2/SnO2 nanofibers have been reported by Liu et al. [72] using two syringes containing different solutions linked to a common

• electrospun nanofibers as the sensing layer. These materials include: metal oxide (MOx) semiconductors (e.g., SnO2, TiO2, SiO2) [83][84], doped MOx semiconductors [4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11], composite materials made of MOx semiconducting materials (e.g., ZnO-In2O3) [86], conducting polymer-based gas sensors

• of electrospun metal oxide (MOx) semiconductors have been used for gas sensing applications. These semiconductors include titanium dioxide (TiO2) [93][94][95], tungsten trioxide (WO3) [27][96][97][98][99][100][101][102][103][104][105][106][107][108][109][110], copper oxide (CuO) [111], NiO [112

Spin-coated planar Sb₂S₃ hybrid solar cells approaching 5% efficiency

• Pascal Kaienburg,
• Benjamin Klingebiel and
• Thomas Kirchartz

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 2114–2124, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.200

• thin absorber (ETA) architecture, which is similar to that of dye-sensitized solar cells [21]. A thin absorber layer of around 10 nm [22] is deposited on a mesoporous TiO2 scaffold and the pores are subsequently filled with a hole transport material (HTM). Progress in terms of device efficiency can be

• infiltration of pores [22], which can give way to incomplete coverage of the TiO2 scaffold and an interface between TiO2 and HTM. From a conceptual perspective, planar geometries reduce the large interface area required in ETA cells for appreciable photocurrent generation and should better prevent direct

• of sulfur in the precursor (SbCl3/TU = 1.8) [29]. In a first step, the film morphology was studied. While the Sb-TU process allows the homogeneous deposition of Sb2S3 in a mesoporous TiO2 scaffold which enables device efficiencies comparable to other deposition methods [29], direct thermal

Localized photodeposition of catalysts using nanophotonic resonances in silicon photocathodes

• Evgenia Kontoleta,
• Sven H. C. Askes,
• Lai-Hung Lai and
• Erik C. Garnett

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 2097–2105, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.198

• carriers (Figure 2). An 18 nm amorphous TiO2 layer was conformally deposited on the silicon nanostructures by using atomic layer deposition (ALD). This layer assists with charge separation, stabilizes the silicon surface and helps to passivate trap states, leading to well-known improvements in photo

• -electrochemical performance [39][40][41]. The amorphous TiO2 layer was further annealed at 350 °C for 3 h to form crystalline anatase TiO2, which led to an improved performance. The final TiO2 layers were characterized with X-ray diffraction (XRD) (Figure S2, Supporting Information File 1) and ellipsometry

• (Figure S3, Supporting Information File 1) to verify their quality. Both the XRD pattern and optical constants (n and k values) matched the literature values for thin anatase TiO2 films [42]. The photocarrier density distribution under monochromatic illumination (532 or 638 nm) in the Si–TiO2

A scanning probe microscopy study of nanostructured TiO₂/poly(3-hexylthiophene) hybrid heterojunctions for photovoltaic applications

• Laurie Letertre,
• Roland Roche,
• Olivier Douhéret,
• Hailu G. Kassa,
• Denis Mariolle,
• Nicolas Chevalier,
• Łukasz Borowik,
• Philippe Dumas,
• Benjamin Grévin,
• Roberto Lazzaroni and
• Philippe Leclère

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 2087–2096, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.197

• -UGA, 17 rue des Martyrs F-38054, Grenoble, France 10.3762/bjnano.9.197 Abstract The nanoscale morphology of photoactive hybrid heterojunctions plays a key role in the performances of hybrid solar cells. In this work, the heterojunctions consist of a nanocolumnar TiO2 surface covalently grafted with a

• photovoltaic process and the correlation to the nanoscale morphology. A down-shift of the vacuum level of the TiO2 surface upon grafting was measured by Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM), evidencing the formation of a dipole at the TiO2/P3HT-COOH interface. Upon in situ illumination, a positive photovoltage

• theoretical and material design perspective. Keywords: hybrid heterojunctions; hybrid photovoltaic; Kelvin probe force microscopy; photoconductive-AFM; photo-KPFM; poly(3-hexylthiophene); TiO2; Introduction Over the past decades, a large range of photovoltaic (PV) technologies have been developed for the

Electromigrated electrical optical antennas for transducing electrons and photons at the nanoscale

• Arindam Dasgupta,
• Mickaël Buret,
• Nicolas Cazier,
• Marie-Maxime Mennemanteuil,
• Reinaldo Chacon,
• Kamal Hammani,
• Jean-Claude Weeber,
• Juan Arocas,
• Laurent Markey,
• Gérard Colas des Francs,
• Alexander Uskov,
• Igor Smetanin and
• Alexandre Bouhelier

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 1964–1976, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.187

• TiO2 waveguides and slot geometry. Electrically connected optical antennas on TiO2 waveguides Because the emission spans the visible part of the spectrum, and, depending on the underlying mechanism, extends to near-infrared wavelengths, standard silicon-based platforms are not adapted to collect and

• guide photons emitted by the junctions. For the operation at visible wavelengths waveguiding structures composed of TiO2 feature interesting material properties [60][61] such as broadband transparency, high refractive index, compatibility with complementary metal-oxide semiconductors and ease of

• processing. We realize the implementation of tunneling antennas on a TiO2 waveguide through a multi-step process. First, a 85 to 110 nm thick titanium dioxide layer is deposited by physical vapor deposition on a clean glass substrate. Then, the Au backbone that will subsequently define the electrically

Know your full potential: Quantitative Kelvin probe force microscopy on nanoscale electrical devices

• Amelie Axt,
• Ilka M. Hermes,
• Victor W. Bergmann,
• Niklas Tausendpfund and
• Stefan A. L. Weber

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 1809–1819, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.172

• could be observed upon illuminating the sample. While FM-KPFM resolved a +0.35 V increase of the potential within the methylammonium lead iodide (MAPI) capping layer as well as a narrow local minimum featured at the interface of the compact and the mesoscopic TiO2 layer, AM-KPFM detected only a slightly

• higher potential in the mesoscopic TiO2 and the MAPI capping layer. The illumination-induced potential difference resolved by AM-KPFM was less than 50 mV and no local features could be observed. Thus, only using AM lift mode, we likely would have missed the illumination induced changes in the potential

• , visualized by the red and blue line, respectively. The cell consisted of a fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) electrode, a compact TiO2 electron extraction layer and a mesoscopic TiO2 layer (meso) filled with the perovskite light-absorber methylammonium lead iodide (MAPI). The mesoscopic layer was followed by a

A visible-light-controlled platform for prolonged drug release based on Ag-doped TiO₂ nanotubes with a hydrophobic layer

• Caihong Liang,
• Jiang Wen and
• Xiaoming Liao

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 1793–1801, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.170

• exhibit promising application as a localized, prolonged drug delivery platform. Keywords: Ag doping; drug delivery; hydrophobic layer; prolonged drug release; TiO2 nanotubes; visible-light-controlled release; Introduction Titanium dioxide nanotubes (TNTs) are often employed as drug carriers, owing to

• light by doping AuNPs onto the nanotubes to improve the photocatalysis of the TNTs, which feasibly allows drug release under visible light. However, controlled drug release in combination with extended release delivery via a TiO2 nanotube platform has been rarely investigated. As a trace element

• . Thus, Zn exhibits significant, promising application in the biomedical field. Hence, Zn was selected as a model drug to be loaded into the TiO2 nanotubes for the drug delivery system in this work. In present work, we provide an approach for a visible-light-controlled drug release platform based on the

Controllable one-pot synthesis of uniform colloidal TiO₂ particles in a mixed solvent solution for photocatalysis

• Jong Tae Moon,
• Seung Ki Lee and
• Ji Bong Joo

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 1715–1727, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.163

• Abstract This study reports on the controllable synthesis of uniform colloidal titanium dioxide (TiO2) particles and their photocatalytic applications toward rhodamine B (RhB) degradation. The monodispersed TiO2 particles were synthesized under mixed solvent conditions by sol–gel chemistry in a one-pot

• process. Varying the ratio of solvent composition, the concentration of surfactant and TiO2 precursor was used to control the particle diameter, degree of monodispersity and morphology. The modification of the calcination temperature affected the crystallinity and crystalline phase of the colloidal TiO2

• particles. When uniform, amorphous TiO2 particles were calcined at an optimal temperature (500 °C), the final sample exhibited beneficial characteristics such as high anatase crystallinity with a mixed phase of anatase and rutile and relatively high surface area. The photocatalytic efficiency of the uniform

Nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes coated with zinc oxide nanoparticles as sulfur encapsulator for high-performance lithium/sulfur batteries

• Yan Zhao,
• Zhengjun Liu,
• Liancheng Sun,
• Yongguang Zhang,
• Yuting Feng,
• Xin Wang,
• Indira Kurmanbayeva and
• Zhumabay Bakenov

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 1677–1685, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.159

• Li/S batteries [5]. Another popular strategy to reduce polysulfides from dissolution is using metal oxides, such as TiO2 [6], ZnO [7], MnO2 [8], and SiO2 [9], as the additives or coating layer in the S-cathode. This is because metal oxides can provide strong binding sites with S and reduce the

Sulfur-, nitrogen- and platinum-doped titania thin films with high catalytic efficiency under visible-light illumination

• Boštjan Žener,
• Lev Matoh,
• Giorgio Carraro,
• Bojan Miljević and
• Romana Cerc Korošec

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 1629–1640, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.155

• synthesis; thin films; titanium dioxide; visible-light illumination; Introduction In recent years, titanium dioxide (TiO2) has emerged as one of the most widely investigated semiconductors [1]. Due to its favorable properties (e.g., chemical and biological stability, nontoxicity and inexpensive price) it

• oxidizing species, which then oxidize adsorbed pollutants, forming CO2 and H2O as final products [7]. Because of this particularly beneficial characteristic, together with its low-cost and lack of secondary emissions [8], significant research has been focused on the use of TiO2 photocatalysis in various

• environmental applications, such as water treatment [9][10][11] and air purification [12]. One of the important factors affecting the photocatalytic activity of TiO2 is its specific surface area. By increasing the specific surface area (porosity) of TiO2, the photocatalytic activity can be increased. One of the

Light extraction efficiency enhancement of flip-chip blue light-emitting diodes by anodic aluminum oxide

• Yi-Ru Huang,
• Yao-Ching Chiu,
• Kuan-Chieh Huang,
• Shao-Ying Ting,
• Po-Jui Chiang,
• Chih-Ming Lai,
• Chun-Ping Jen,
• Snow H. Tseng and
• Hsiang-Chen Wang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 1602–1612, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.152

• traditional LED by producing a TiO2 microstructure array on p-GaN through dipping and rapid convective deposition and using noncrystalline TiO2 and anatase TiO2 with a diameter of 520 nm [13]. Huang et al. used Zn and Mg for ion implantation at the GZO thin layer and then adopted rapid thermal annealing to

Sheet-on-belt branched TiO₂(B)/rGO powders with enhanced photocatalytic activity

• Huan Xing,
• Wei Wen and
• Jin-Ming Wu

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 1550–1557, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.146

• TiO2(B) is usually adopted to construct phase junctions with anatase TiO2 for applications in photocatalysis to facilitate charge separation; its intrinsic photocatalytic activity, especially when in the form of one- or three-dimensional nanostructures, has been rarely reported. In this study, a sheet

• -on-belt branched TiO2(B) powder was synthesized with the simultaneous incorporation of reduced graphene oxide (rGO). The monophase, hierarchically nanostructured TiO2(B) exhibited a reaction rate constant 1.7 times that of TiO2(B)/rGO and 2.9 times that of pristine TiO2(B) nanobelts when utilized to

• assist the photodegradation of phenol in water under UV light illumination. The enhanced photocatalytic activity can be attributed to the significantly increased surface area and enhanced charge separation. Keywords: branched nanostructure; photocatalysis; reduced graphene oxide; TiO2(B); Introduction

Cathodoluminescence as a probe of the optical properties of resonant apertures in a metallic film

• Kalpana Singh,
• Evgeniy Panchenko,
• Babak Nasr,
• Amelia Liu,
• Lukas Wesemann,
• Timothy J. Davis and
• Ann Roberts

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 1491–1500, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.140

• resolution [52]. Dichroic-sensitive cathodoluminescence imaging has also been used to study the chiral nature of the gold split-ring resonators on a TiO2 substrate [53]. Most studies have focused on nanoparticles on silicon substrates that can have a significant impact on the optical resonances of plasmonic

Cr(VI) remediation from aqueous environment through modified-TiO₂-mediated photocatalytic reduction

• Rashmi Acharya,
• Brundabana Naik and
• Kulamani Parida

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 1448–1470, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.137

• TiO2 as a photocatalyst and the importance of its modification for photocatalytic reduction of Cr(VI) has also been addressed. In this review, the photocatalytic activity of TiO2 after modification with carbon-based advanced materials, metal oxides, metal sulfides and noble metals towards reduction of

• Cr(VI) was evaluated and compared with that of bare TiO2. The photoactivity of dye-sensitized TiO2 for reduction of Cr(VI) was also discussed. The mechanism for enhanced photocatalytic activity was highlighted and attributed to the resultant properties, namely, effective separation of photoinduced

• charge carriers, extension of the light absorption range and intensity, increase of the surface active sites, and higher photostability. Advantages and limitations for photoreduction of Cr(VI) over modified TiO2 are depicted in the Conclusion. The various challenges that restrict the technology from

Semi-automatic spray pyrolysis deposition of thin, transparent, titania films as blocking layers for dye-sensitized and perovskite solar cells

• Hana Krýsová,
• Josef Krýsa and
• Ladislav Kavan

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 1135–1145, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.105

• electrons with the oxidized form of the redox mediator or with the hole-transporting medium can be avoided. In the present work, thin, transparent, blocking TiO2 films are prepared by semi-automatic spray pyrolysis of precursors consisting of titanium diisopropoxide bis(acetylacetonate) as the main

• -transfer reaction. Semi-automatic spraying resulted in the formation of transparent, homogeneous, TiO2 films, and the technique allows for easy upscaling to large electrode areas. The deposition temperature of 450 °C was necessary for the fabrication of highly photoactive TiO2 films. The blocking

• properties of the as-deposited TiO2 films (at 450 °C) were impaired by post-calcination at 500 °C, but this problem could be addressed by increasing the number of spray cycles. The modification of the precursor by adding acetylacetone resulted in the fabrication of TiO2 films exhibiting perfect blocking

Room-temperature single-photon emitters in titanium dioxide optical defects

• Kelvin Chung,
• Yu H. Leung,
• Chap H. To,
• Aleksandra B. Djurišić and
• Snjezana Tomljenovic-Hanic

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 1085–1094, doi:10.3762/bjnano.9.100

• emission. ZnO is the only metal oxide reported to host single-photon emitting defects at room temperature and was recently shown to exhibit stable fluorescence when uptaken into skin cells, making it a viable biomarker [11]. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is a well-studied wide-bandgap semiconductor, its

• ][21]. TiO2 can be fabricated using many methods resulting in an abundance of nanostructures [22]. In nanoparticle form, TiO2 is a constituent of sunscreens [23][24]. Other applications also include elimination of environmental pollution [25][26][27][28], and energy [29] and sensing applications [30

• ][31][32]. Semiconductor defects have been touted as an promising platform for the development of a quantum computer in the solid state [33] in which the usage of TiO2 could be possible with further research into its quantum and physical properties. TiO2 crystallises into three main forms: anatase