C2 to C6 biobased carbonyl platforms for fine chemistry

• Jingjing Jiang,
• Muhammad Noman Haider Tariq,
• Florence Popowycz,
• Yanlong Gu and
• Yves Queneau

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2025, 21, 2103–2172, doi:10.3762/bjoc.21.165

• from homogeneous catalysts such as mineral acids, organic acids, metal salts (with high availability and low costs) to heterogeneous ones such as zeolites, metal oxides, sulfonated polymers, carbon-based solid acids. The latter allow to overcome the problems of separation encountered with homogeneous

Catalysing (organo-)catalysis: Trends in the application of machine learning to enantioselective organocatalysis

• Stefan P. Schmid,
• Leon Schlosser,
• Frank Glorius and
• Kjell Jorner

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2024, 20, 2280–2304, doi:10.3762/bjoc.20.196

• . Keywords: catalyst design; machine learning; modelling; organocatalysis; selectivity prediction; Introduction Since the beginning of the 21st century, organocatalysts [1] have established themselves as a third group of homogeneous catalysts, next to biocatalysts [2] (enzymes) and transition metal-based

Factors influencing the performance of organocatalysts immobilised on solid supports: A review

• Zsuzsanna Fehér,
• Dóra Richter,
• Gyula Dargó and
• József Kupai

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2024, 20, 2129–2142, doi:10.3762/bjoc.20.183

• fine chemical and pharmaceutical industries [9]. The limitation of homogeneous catalysts, however, is their complex, time-consuming and energy-intensive recovery and subsequent recycling. Therefore, synthetic modification of catalysts is a commonly used method to aid their recovery. Obstacles to the

• recycling of homogeneous catalysts can be addressed by heterogenisation of homogeneous catalysts [10], either following their application as homogeneous catalysts or before their application (heterogeneous catalysis). In heterogeneous catalysis, catalysts and reactants are present in different phases

Manganese-catalyzed C–C and C–N bond formation with alcohols via borrowing hydrogen or hydrogen auto-transfer

• Mohd Farhan Ansari,
• Atul Kumar Maurya,
• Abhishek Kumar and
• Saravanakumar Elangovan

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2024, 20, 1111–1166, doi:10.3762/bjoc.20.98

• , expensive, and limited in availability. Hence, replacing them with the first row of transition metals would increase the sustainability and profitability of this procedure [13]. Indeed, many 3d-metal-based homogeneous catalysts have been documented for BH reactions [14][15] since these metals are

• homogeneous catalysts, including noble and non-noble metals, have been studied for the alkylation of ketones with primary and secondary alcohols [55][56]. In this section, we discuss the development of manganese complexes (Figure 2) for coupling primary and secondary alcohols with ketones to give the

A novel recyclable organocatalyst for the gram-scale enantioselective synthesis of (S)-baclofen

• Gyula Dargó,
• Dóra Erdélyi,
• Balázs Molnár,
• Péter Kisszékelyi,
• Zsófia Garádi and
• József Kupai

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2023, 19, 1811–1824, doi:10.3762/bjoc.19.133

• addition of trans-β-nitrostyrene (12) and acetylacetone (13). Choosing the best solvent for the reaction is crucial, thus, solubility tests were carried out (Table 1). Since homogeneous catalysts usually exhibit higher activity and selectivity than their heterogeneous counterparts [27], our aim was to

Inline purification in continuous flow synthesis – opportunities and challenges

• Jorge García-Lacuna and
• Marcus Baumann

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2022, 18, 1720–1740, doi:10.3762/bjoc.18.182

• solution to avoid particles in the chromatography system [37][124]. In relation to nanofiltration, several devices equipped with specific membranes have been reported. Hessel and co-workers published a detailed review about inline recycling and separation of homogeneous catalysts, which contains a detailed

A resorcin[4]arene hexameric capsule as a supramolecular catalyst in elimination and isomerization reactions

• Tommaso Lorenzetto,
• Fabrizio Fabris and
• Alessandro Scarso

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2022, 18, 337–349, doi:10.3762/bjoc.18.38

• the cyclization of citronellal have been developed mostly based on transition metals, both as heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts frequently under much harsher experimental conditions [48][49][50]. The same cyclization of citronellal was reported also by Raymond and collaborators in water using a

Green synthesis of C5–C6-unsubstituted 1,4-DHP scaffolds using an efficient Ni–chitosan nanocatalyst under ultrasonic conditions

• Soumyadip Basu,
• Sauvik Chatterjee,
• Suman Ray,
• Suvendu Maity,
• Prasanta Ghosh,
• Asim Bhaumik and
• Chhanda Mukhopadhyay

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2022, 18, 133–142, doi:10.3762/bjoc.18.14

• yield, the use of an eco-friendly solvent and a recyclable nanocatalyst, as well as reaction at room temperature. Keywords: 1,4-DHPs; green synthesis; magnetically recyclable catalyst; Ni–chitosan nanoparticles; ultrasonication; Introduction Homogeneous catalysts, despite having an outstanding

Recent advances and perspectives in ruthenium-catalyzed cyanation reactions

• Thaipparambil Aneeja,
• Cheriya Mukkolakkal Abdulla Afsina,
• Padinjare Veetil Saranya and
• Gopinathan Anilkumar

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2022, 18, 37–52, doi:10.3762/bjoc.18.4

• -aryl-substituted cyclic tertiary amines including N-arylpiperidines and N-aryltetrahydroisoquinolines. The high reusability of the catalyst at least seven times further enhanced the importance of this strategy in the field of organic synthesis. 1.2 Cyanation of amines using homogeneous catalysts An

[2 + 1] Cycloaddition reactions of fullerene C₆₀ based on diazo compounds

• Yuliya N. Biglova

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2021, 17, 630–670, doi:10.3762/bjoc.17.55

• pincer ligands 57, 58 [102], 59 [103], and 60 [104], or the so-called “bucky ligands” (Scheme 18). In the development of new organometallic C60 compounds that can be used as homogeneous catalysts, new blocks 61 and 62, cross-conjugated through cyclopropane, were synthesized (Scheme 19) [104]. Attaching

Valorisation of plastic waste via metal-catalysed depolymerisation

• Francesca Liguori,
• Carmen Moreno-Marrodán and
• Pierluigi Barbaro

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2021, 17, 589–621, doi:10.3762/bjoc.17.53

• catalyst replacements for zinc acetate in the glycolysis of PET are examples of this direction [129][130]. Recent studies focused on molecular complexes as homogeneous catalysts, whereas heterogeneous systems based on solid-supported metal nanoparticles (NPs) have been scarcely investigated. 3.1

• mediated by commercially available Ru homogeneous catalysts [148]. The process afforded C16 to C44 mixtures of macrocyclic oligobutadienes with up to 98% selectivity at moderate conversions (59–88%) using first-generation Ru complexes bearing a tricyclohexylphosphine (PCy3) ligand, mild reaction

• and the possible product contamination by homogeneous catalysts [199]. The conventional catalysts for this reaction are EG-soluble metal acetates, the activity of which showed a decrease in the order Zn2+ > Mn2+ > Co2+, which was attributed to the diverse interaction between the metal cation promoter

Hierarchically assembled helicates as reaction platform – from stoichiometric Diels–Alder reactions to enamine catalysis

• David Van Craen,
• Jenny Begall,
• Johannes Großkurth,
• Leonard Himmel,
• Oliver Linnenberg,
• Elisabeth Isaak and
• Markus Albrecht

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2020, 16, 2338–2345, doi:10.3762/bjoc.16.195

• as homogeneous catalysts. Results and Discussion Stereoselective Diels–Alder reactions in the periphery of hierarchically assembled helicates Elucidating the induction pathway of the Diels–Alder reaction is vital for the optimization of the system described above and for the development of future

Synergy between supported ionic liquid-like phases and immobilized palladium N-heterocyclic carbene–phosphine complexes for the Negishi reaction under flow conditions

• Edgar Peris,
• Raúl Porcar,
• María Macia,
• Jesús Alcázar,
• Eduardo García-Verdugo and
• Santiago V. Luis

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2020, 16, 1924–1935, doi:10.3762/bjoc.16.159

• homogeneous catalysts for Negishi reactions [4]. Although these systems are highly efficient, their homogeneous nature hamper the separation of the products and recovery of the excess of the palladium from the reaction solution. A possible solution to this issue is the preparation of the related immobilized

One-pot synthesis of isosorbide from cellulose or lignocellulosic biomass: a challenge?

• Isaline Bonnin,
• Raphaël Mereau,
• Thierry Tassaing and
• Karine De Oliveira Vigier

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2020, 16, 1713–1721, doi:10.3762/bjoc.16.143

• to sorbitol. Several homogeneous catalysts were used such as mineral acids, boron phosphate and heteropolyacids (Scheme 2). Palkovits et al. studied the combination of supported noble metal catalysts based on Pt, Pd and Ru with dilute mineral acids such as phosphoric or sulfuric acid for the

The charge-assisted hydrogen-bonded organic framework (CAHOF) self-assembled from the conjugated acid of tetrakis(4-aminophenyl)methane and 2,6-naphthalenedisulfonate as a new class of recyclable Brønsted acid catalysts

• Svetlana A. Kuznetsova,
• Alexander S. Gak,
• Yulia V. Nelyubina,
• Vladimir A. Larionov,
• Han Li,
• Michael North,
• Vladimir P. Zhereb,
• Alexander F. Smol'yakov,
• Artem O. Dmitrienko,
• Michael G. Medvedev,
• Igor S. Gerasimov,
• Ashot S. Saghyan and
• Yuri N. Belokon

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2020, 16, 1124–1134, doi:10.3762/bjoc.16.99

• catalysis are well-known and documented [1][2][3]. However, problems associated with catalyst recovery limit the application of homogeneous catalysts in industry and sometimes make their heterogenization necessary. Unfortunately, the immobilization of a homogeneous catalyst onto supports, such as

• -linked covalent polymeric matrixes or the destruction of catalytic centers during productive cycles can shorten the lives of the catalysts to an extent that makes the immobilization of homogeneous catalysts impractical [7]. In recent decades, novel classes of heterogeneous, porous, crystalline

Functionalization of the imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine ring in α-phosphonoacrylates and α-phosphonopropionates via microwave-assisted Mizoroki–Heck reaction

• Damian Kusy,
• Agata Wojciechowska,
• Joanna Małolepsza and
• Katarzyna M. Błażewska

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2020, 16, 15–21, doi:10.3762/bjoc.16.3

• heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts, as well as continuous-flow conditions [13][14][15]. Therefore, we tested microwave heating, a technique which is known for significant acceleration of the C–C coupling reaction [16]. We carried out the optimization studies using model substrates – compound 1a and benzyl

Self-assembled coordination thioether silver(I) macrocyclic complexes for homogeneous catalysis

• Zhen Cao,
• Aline Lacoudre,
• Cybille Rossy and
• Brigitte Bibal

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2019, 15, 2465–2472, doi:10.3762/bjoc.15.239

• complexes 1a–d were evaluated as homogeneous catalysts in two tandem addition/cycloisomerization reactions using alkynes 2 and 3. 2-Alkynylbenzaldehyde 2 [58][59] was chosen as the first model substrate for a cyclization reaction in the presence of methanol as a second nucleophile. This tandem addition

• the coordinated ligands (head-to-head or head-to-tail) resulting into different spatial arrangements. In solution, the architectures of silver(I) complexes with ligand syn-1 seemed to be similar to the solid-state structures. The silver(I) complexes were evaluated as homogeneous catalysts in two

Aqueous olefin metathesis: recent developments and applications

• Valerio Sabatino and
• Thomas R. Ward

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2019, 15, 445–468, doi:10.3762/bjoc.15.39

• ammonium tags Classical metathesis catalysts such as G-II and HG-II are among the most active, stable and versatile ruthenium complexes. Despite their high activity and remarkable stability, they are sparingly soluble in neat water, thus challenging their use as homogeneous catalysts in pure water. To

The activity of indenylidene derivatives in olefin metathesis catalysts

• Maria Voccia,
• Steven P. Nolan,
• Luigi Cavallo and
• Albert Poater

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2018, 14, 2956–2963, doi:10.3762/bjoc.14.275

• ] developed well-defined homogeneous catalysts that the area truly blossomed. Using a metal carbene complex as a catalyst, making use of the Chauvin mechanism, olefin metathesis consists of the redistribution of two carbon–carbon double bonds [9]. The metal and its ligand environment in both ruthenium and

An overview on recent advances in the synthesis of sulfonated organic materials, sulfonated silica materials, and sulfonated carbon materials and their catalytic applications in chemical processes

• Hashem Sharghi,
• Pezhman Shiri and
• Mahdi Aberi

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2018, 14, 2745–2770, doi:10.3762/bjoc.14.253

• ; biodiesel synthesis; sulfonated carbon materials; sulfonated industrial and laboratory products; sulfonated organic materials; sulfonated silica materials; Review 1. Introduction Mineral acids (sulfuric acid, sulfonic acid, hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, and boric acid) as homogeneous catalysts were

• homogeneous catalysts (Scheme 7). Significantly, IL catalysts 47b,c could be extracted from the reaction mixture for six consecutive cycles. In all runs, IL catalysts 47b,c showed excellent catalytic activity. The FTIR spectra of two of these reused ILs after the 6th run and the fresh ILs have been used to

• are the first option for heterogenizing the homogeneous catalysts. These solid supports have greatly functionalized with various functional groups [55]. In this regard, different functionalized SiO2 containing sulfonic acid groups as novel acid catalysts were employed in different synthetic and

Cobalt- and rhodium-catalyzed carboxylation using carbon dioxide as the C1 source

• Tetsuaki Fujihara and
• Yasushi Tsuji

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2018, 14, 2435–2460, doi:10.3762/bjoc.14.221

• [2 + 2 + 2] cycloaddition of diynes and CO2 proceeds to afford pyrones. Keywords: carbon dioxide; carboxylation; cobalt; homogeneous catalysts; rhodium; Introduction Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the most important materials as renewable feedstock [1][2][3][4]. However, the thermodynamic and

Efficient catalytic alkyne metathesis with a fluoroalkoxy-supported ditungsten(III) complex

• Henrike Ehrhorn,
• Janin Schlösser,
• Dirk Bockfeld and
• Matthias Tamm

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2018, 14, 2425–2434, doi:10.3762/bjoc.14.220

• applications of alkyne metathesis since this protocol represents a convenient approach to alkyne metathesis catalysts in two steps starting from WCl4. Selected homogeneous catalysts for alkyne metathesis. Molecular structure of W2F3·NHMe2 with thermal displacement parameters drawn at 50% probability. Hydrogen

Nanoreactors for green catalysis

• M. Teresa De Martino,
• Loai K. E. A. Abdelmohsen,
• Floris P. J. T. Rutjes and
• Jan C. M. van Hest

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2018, 14, 716–733, doi:10.3762/bjoc.14.61

• environmental point of view. A good method for homogeneous catalysts separation and reuse is offered by the use of biphasic liquid–liquid systems. Recycling can be achieved in the reactor when the organic phase is sampled out, while the aqueous phase containing the catalyst is retained into the vessel, enabling

• for continuous processing. The main issue that has to be solved in such set-up is the tolerability of the catalyst to water (its solubility, its activity, etc.) [55]. A strategy to overcome this problem is the inclusion and confinement of the homogeneous catalysts into a host nano-architecture [56

• ]. In this review we will highlight some typical nanoreactors that are used to accommodate homogeneous catalysts, holding promise in green organic synthesis. A division will be made between self-assembled nanoreactors, section 2, and covalent systems, section 3. 2. Self-assembled nanoreactors Self

Heterogeneous Pd catalysts as emulsifiers in Pickering emulsions for integrated multistep synthesis in flow chemistry

• Katharina Hiebler,
• Georg J. Lichtenegger,
• Manuel C. Maier,
• Eun Sung Park,
• Renie Gonzales-Groom,
• Bernard P. Binks and
• Heidrun Gruber-Woelfler

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2018, 14, 648–658, doi:10.3762/bjoc.14.52

• strategies to realise heterogeneous palladium catalysis [21]. Immobilisation of catalytic systems on solid supports can mitigate a lot of problems of homogeneous catalysts, for example, it allows a straightforward removal of the catalyst from the reaction system. However, most heterogeneous approaches

Mechanochemical synthesis of graphene oxide-supported transition metal catalysts for the oxidation of isoeugenol to vanillin

• Ana Franco,
• Sudipta De,
• Alina M. Balu,
• Araceli Garcia and
• Rafael Luque

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2017, 13, 1439–1445, doi:10.3762/bjoc.13.141

• significant. Another problem related to the slow reaction rates, unsuitable for commercial production. As a result, chemical oxidation pathways were also followed. To achieve faster kinetics and better selectivity of vanillin, homogeneous catalysts based on different transition metal salts/complexes were